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By  FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN. 

Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera.    With  Introductory  Chap 
ters  on  the  Outfit  and  Methods  of  the  Bird  Photographer. 

By  FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN,  Assistant  Curator  of  Vertebrate 
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nomenal success  in  photographing  birds  in  Nature  not  only  lends  to  the 
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Bird=Life.     A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  our  Common  Birds. 

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Handbook    of    Birds    of    Eastern    North    America. 

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D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


V 

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w 

IM  *W 


PLATE  I. 


BARN  SWALLOW. 

CLIFF  SWALLOW.  TREE  SWALLOW. 

BANK  SWALLOW. 


•  BIRD-LIFE 

A    GUIDE    TO    THE    STUDY    OF 
OUR   COMMON    BIRDS 


BY 

FRANK    M.   CHAPMAN 

ASSISTANT  CURATOR  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  MAMMALOGY  AND 

ORNITHOLOGY  IN  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL 

HISTORY  ;   MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN 

ORNITHOLOGISTS'  UNION  ; 
AUTHOR  OF  HANDBOOK  OF  BIRDS  OF  EASTERN  NORTH  AMERICA,  ETC. 


WITH  SEVENTY-FIVE  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  AND 
NUMEROUS    TEXT  DRAWINGS 

BY    ERNEST   SETON   THOMPSON 

AUTHOR    OF    ART    ANATOMY    OF   ANIMALS,    THE    BIRDS    OF    MANITOBA,    ETC. 


NEW   YORK 

D.   APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 
1900 


COPYRIGHT,  189r, 
BY   D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY. 


TO 

DR.  J.  A.  ALLEN 

THIS     BOOK     IS     DEDICATED 
AS   A   TOKEN   OF   RESPECT   AND   AFFECTION 

FROM    ONE   WHO 
FOR    NINE    YEARS    HAS    WORKED    AT    HIS    SIDE. 


PEEFACE. 


How  unusual  it  is  to  meet  any  one  who  can  correctly 
name  a  dozen  of  our  birds !  One  may  live  in  the  country 
and  still  know  only  two  or  three  of  the  one  hundred  and 
fifty  or  more  kinds  of  birds  that  may  be  found  during 
the  year.  Nevertheless,  these  gay,  restless  creatures, 
both  by  voice  and  action,  constantly  invite  our  attention, 
and  they  are  far  too  interesting  and  beautiful  to  be 
ignored.  No  one  to  whom  Nature  appeals  should  be 
without  some  knowledge  of  these,  the  most  attractive  of 
her  animate  forms. 

The  scientific  results  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of 
birds  are  fully  realized  by  the  naturalist.  But  there  are 
other  results  equally  important.  I  would  have  every  one 
know  of  them :  results  that  add  to  our  pleasure  in  field 
and  wood,  and  give  fresh  interest  to  walks  that  before 
were  eventless ;  that  quicken  both  ear  and  eye,  making 
us  hear  and  see  where  before  we  were  deaf  and  blind. 
Then,  to  our  surprise,  we  shall  discover  that  the  forests 
and  pastures  we  have  known  all  our  lives  are  tenanted 
by  countless  feathered  inhabitants  whose  companionship 
will  prove  a  source  of  endless  enjoyment. 

I  would  enter  a  special  plea  for  the  study  of  birds  in 
the  schools ;  for  the  more  general  introduction  of 
ornithology  in  natural -history  courses.  Frogs  and  cray- 
fish serve  an  excellent  purpose,  but  we  may  not  en- 
counter either  of  them  after  leaving  the  laboratory ; 
whereas  birds  not  only  offer  excellent  opportunities  for 


vi  PREFACE. 

study,  but  are  always  about  us,  and  even  a  slight  famil- 
iarity with  them  will  be  of  value  long  after  school  days 
are  over. 

Popular  interest  must  precede  the  desire  for  purely 
technical  knowledge.  The  following  pages  are  not  ad- 
dressed to  past  masters  in  ornithology,  but  to  those  who 
desire  a  general  knowledge  of  bird- life  and  some  ac- 
quaintance with  our  commoner  birds.  The  opening 
chapters  of  this  book  briefly  define  the  bird,  its  place  in 
Nature  and  its  relation  to  man,  and  outline  the  leading 
facts  in  its  life-history.  The  concluding  chapters  pre- 
sent the  portraits,  names,  and  addresses  of  upward  of  one 
hundred  familiar  birds  of  eastern  North  America,  with 
such  information  concerning  their  comings  and  goings 
as  will  lead,  I  trust,  to  their  being  found  at  home. 

After  this  introduction  the  student  may  be  left  on 
the  threshold,  with  the  assurance  that  his  entrance  to  the 
innermost  circles  of  bird-life  depends  entirely  on  his  own 
patience  and  enthusiasm. 

FRANK  M.  CHAPMAN. 

AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY, 
NEW  YORK  CITY,  January,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PA  (IE 

I. — THE   BIRD,   ITS   PLACE   IN    NATURE   AND   RELATION   TO   MAN     .         1 

Place  in  Nature — Relation  to  man. 

• 

II. — THE  LIVING  BIRD .        .14 

Factors  of  evolution — The  wing,  its  form  and  uses — 
The  tail,  its  form  and  uses — The  foot,  its  form  and  uses 
— The  bill,  its  form  and  uses. 

III. — COLORS  OF  BIRDS 35 

Color  and  age — Color  and  season — The  molt — Color  and 
food — Color  and  climate — Color  and  haunt  and  habit — 
Color  and  sex. 

IV. — THE   MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS 48 

Extent  of  migration — Times  of  migration — Manner  of 
migration — Origin  of  migration. 

V. — THE  VOICE  OF  BIRDS 62 

Song — Call-notes. 

VI. — THE  NESTING  SEASON 64 

Time  of  nesting — Mating — The  nest — The  eggs — The 
young. 

VII. — HOW  TO  IDENTIFY   BIRDS  .      71 

A  bird's  biography. 

FIELD  KEY  TO  OUR  COMMON  LAND  BIRDS   .        .        .       .75 
vii 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

THE  WATER  BIRDS  .        .        .       .       . '      .       ,       .       .        .84 
Diving  Birds— Long-winged  Swimmers— Tube-nosed  Swim- 
mers— Larnellirostral  Swimmers — Herons,  Storks,  Ibises,  etc. 
— Cranes,  Kails,  etc. — Shore  Birds. 

THE  LAND  BIRDS      .        .        .        . 110 

•  Gallinaceous  Birds — Pigeons  and  Doves — Birds  of  Prey — 
Cuckoos,  Kingfishers,  etc.  —  Woodpeckers  —  Goatsuckers, 
Swifts,  and  Hummingbirds — Perching  Birds. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FULL-PAGE  PLATES. 
PLATE  PAGE 

I. — Barn,  Cliff,  Bank,  and  Tree  Swallows  .     Frontispiece 

II.— Pied-billed  Grebe 85 

III.— Loon 87 

IV.— Herring  Gull ;  Petrels 89 

V._Wood  Duck  ;  Pintails ;  Mallards ;  Green-winged  Teal ; 

Blue-winged  Teal ;  Canada  Geese  ....  93 
VI.— Little  Green  Heron;   Black-crowned  Night   Heron; 

Great  Blue  Heron 97 

VII.— American  Bittern  ;  Sora 99 

VIII.— American  Coot ;  Clapper  Rail 101 

IX.— Wilson's  Snipe 105 

X. — Common  Tern;  Semipalmated  Sandpiper;  Semipal- 

mated  Plover 107 

XI.— Spotted  Sandpiper ;  Killdeer 109 

XII.— Ruffed  Grouse 113 

XIII.— Mourning  Dove H5 

XIV.— Red-shouldered  Hawk 117 

XV.— Marsh  Hawk .        .  119 

XVI.— Sparrow  Hawk 121 

XVII.— Sharp-shinned  Hawk 123 

XVIII.— American  Osprey  . I25 

XIX.— Short-eared  Owl 127 

XX.— Screech  Owl 139 

XXI.— Barred  Owl 131 

XXII.— Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 133 

XXIII.— Belted  Kingfisher 135 

XXIV.— Downy  Woodpecker 137 

XXV.— Red-headed  Woodpecker 139 

XXVI.— Flicker 141 

XXVII.— Nighthawk;  Whip-poor-will 143 

ix 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PLATE  PAGE 

XXVIII.— Chimney  Swift    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .145 

XXIX.— Ruby-throated  Hummingbird 147 

XXX.— Kingbird 151 

XXXI.— Crested  Flycatcher 153 

XXXII.— Phoebe         .        ...       ".':'•        .        .        .155 

XXXIIL— Wood  Pewee 157 

XXXIV.— Horned  Lark       .        . 159 

XXXV.— Baltimore  Oriole 165 

XXXVI.— Orchard  Oriole 167 

XXXVII.— Purple  Grackle 169 

XXXVIII.— Bobolink 171 

XXXIX.— Meadowlark 173 

XL.— Cowbird 175 

XLL— Song  Sparrow 177 

XLII.— Swamp  Sparrow 179 

XLIII.— Field  Sparrow 181 

XLIV.— Vesper  Sparrow 183 

XLV. — Chipping  Sparrow 185 

XLVL— White-throated  Sparrow 187 

XLVII.— Fox  Sparrow 189 

XLVIII.— Junco 191 

XLIX.— Tree  Sparrow      . 193 

L. — Redpoll;  Snowflake 195 

LI. — American  Crossbill ;  Pine  Grosbeak  ....  197 

LII. — American  Goldfinch 199 

LIU.— Purple  Finch 201 

LIV. — Rose-breasted  Grosbeak 203 

LV.— Towhee 205 

LVL— Dickcissel 209 

L  VI  I.— Cedar  Wax  wing 217 

LVIII.— Northern  Shrike 219 

LIX.— Red-eyed  Vireo ;  Yellow-tnroated  Vireo   .        .        .223 

LX.— Black  and  White  Warbler .        .        .        .        .        .  225 

LXI.— Myrtle  Warbler  ;  Black-throated  Green  Warbler      .  227 

LXIL— Redstart 229 

LXIII.— Oven-bird 231 

LXIV.— Maryland  Yellow-throat 233 

LXV.— Yellow-breasted  Chat 235 

LXVI.— Mockingbird 239 

LX VII.— Brown  Thrasher 241 

LXVIIL— House  Wren 243 

LXIX.— Long-billed  Marsh  Wren 245 

LXX.— Brown  Creeper ;  Chickadee 247 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xi 

PLATE  PAGE 

LXXI.— Red-breasted  Nuthatch  ;  White-breasted  Nuthatch       .  249 
LXXII. — Golden-crowned  Kinglet ;  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet         .  253 

LXXIIL— Veery 255 

LXXIV.— Wood  Thrush 257 

LXXV.— Hermit  Thrush  .  259 


FIGURES  IN  THE  TEXT. 

FIG.  PAGK 

1.  Restoration  of  the  Archseopteryx,  a  toothed,  reptilelike  bird 

of  the  Jurassic  period 3 

2.  End  of  spearlike  tongue  of  Pileated  Woodpecker     .        .        .14 

3.  Tip  of  tail  of  (a)  Downy  Woodpecker,  (b)  Brown  Creeper,  to 

show  the  pointed  shape  in  tails  of  creeping  birds  of  different 
families * 16 

4.  Young  Hoatzin,  showing  use  of  hooked  fingers  in  climbing    .     17 

5.  Short,  rounded  wing  and  large  foot  of  Little  Black  Rail,  a  ter- 

restrial bird 18 

6.  Long,  pointed  wing  and  small  foot  of  Tree  Swallow,  an  aerial 

bird 18 

7.  Frigate-bird 19 

8.  Great  Auk,  showing  relatively  small  wing         .        .        .        .21 

9.  Wing  of  Woodcock,  showing  three  outer  attenuate  feathers    .    24 

10.  Jacana,  showing  spurred  wing  and  elongated  toes    .        .        .24 

11.  Tail-feathers  of  Motmot  (Momotussubrufescens),  showing  newly 

grown  feathers  and  results  of  self-inflicted  mutilation         .    26 

12.  Lobed  foot  of  Coot  (Fulica  americana),  a  swimming  bird  of 

the  Rail  family 27 

13.  Lobed  foot  of  a  Phalarope  (CrymopMlus  fulicarius),  a  swim- 

ming bird  of  the  Snipe  family 27 

14.  Flamingo,  showing  relative  length  of  legs  and  neck  in  a  wad- 

ing bird  28 

15.  Foot  of  Fish  Hawk,  showing  large  claws  and  spicules  on  under 

surface  of  toes 29 

16.  Naked  toes  of  Ruffed  Grouse  in  summer ;  fringed  toes  of  Ruffed 

Grouse  in  winter 29 

17.  Decurved  bill  of  Sickle-bill  Hummingbird        .        .        .        .31 

18.  Serrate  bill  of  Merganser,  a  fish-eating  bird      .        .        .        .32 

19.  Probelike  bill  of  Woodcock,  showing  extent  to  which  upper 

mandible  can  be  moved 32 

20.  Recurved  bill  of  Avocet 32 

21.  Bill  of  Spoonbill  Sandpiper 33 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 


22.  Curved  bill  of  female,  straight  bill  of  male  Huia-bird      .        .    33 

23.  Feathers  from  back  of  Snowflake,  showing  seasonal  changes  in 

form  and  color  due  to  wearing  off  of  tips      .  .        .38 

24.  Eggs  of  (a)  Spotted  Sandpiper  and  (b)  Catbird,  to  show  differ- 

ence in  size  of  eggs  of  prsecocial  and  altricial  birds  of  same 
size  ......        ......     08 

25.  Topography  of  a  bird  .........    74 


BIRD-LIFE. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

THE  BIRD:   ITS  PLACE  IN  NATURE  AND 
RELATION  TO  MAN. 

The  Bird's  Place  in  Nature* — About  thirteen 
thousand  species  of  birds  are  known  to  science.  The 
structure  of  many  of  these  has  been  carefully  studied, 
and  all  have  been  classified,  at  least  provisionally. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  the  class  Aves,  in  which  all  birds  are 
placed,  is  more  clearly  defined  than  any  other  group  of 
the  higher  animals.  That  is,  the  most  unlike  birds  are 
more  closely  allied  than  are  the  extremes  among  mam- 
mals, fishes,  or  reptiles,  and  all  living  birds  possess  the 
distinctive  characters  of  their  class. 

When  compared  with  other  animals,  birds  are  found 
to  occupy  second  place  in  the  scale  of  life.  They  stand 
between  mammals  and  reptiles,  and  are  more  closely  re- 
lated to  the  latter  than  to  the  former.  In  fact,  certain 
extinct  birds  so  clearly  connect  living  birds  with  rep- 
tiles, that  these  two  classes  are  sometimes  placed  in  one 
group — the  Sauropsida. 

*  On  the  structure  of  birds  read  Coues's  Key  to  North  American 
Birds,  Part  II  (Estes  &  Lauriat) ;  Headley,  The  Structure  and  Life  of 
Birds ;  Newton's  Dictionary  of  Birds — articles,  Anatomy  of  Birds  and 
Fossil  Birds  ;  Martin  and  Moale's  Handbook  of  Vertebrate  Dissection, 
Part  II,  How  to  Dissect  a  Bird;  Shufeldt's  Myology  of  the  Raven 
(Macmillan  Co.). 

2  1 


2  CHARACTERS  OF  BIRDS. 

The  characters  that  distinguish  birds  from  mammals 
on  the  one  hand,  and  from  reptiles  on  the  other,  are  more 
apparent  than  real.  Thus  flight,  the  most  striking  of  a 
bird's  gifts,  is  shared  by  bats  among  mammals.  Egg-lay- 
ing is  the  habit  of  most  reptiles  and  of  three  mammals 
(the  Australian  duckbill  and  the  echidnas).  But  incuba- 
tion by  one  or  both  of  the  parents  is  peculiar  to  birds, 
though  the  python  is  said  to  coil  on  its  eggs. 

Birds  breathe  more  rapidly  than  either  mammals  or 
reptiles,  and  their  pneumaticity,  or  power  of  inflating 
numerous  air-sacs  and  even  certain  bones,  is  unique. 

The  temperature  of  birds  ranges  from  100°  to  112°, 
while  in  mammals  it  reaches  98°  to  100°,  and  in  the  com- 
paratively cold-blooded  reptiles  it  averages  only  40°. 

The  skull  in  mammals  articulates  with  the  last  verte- 
bra (atlas)  by  two  condyles  or  balls ;  in  birds  and  reptiles 
by  only  one.  In  mammals  and  birds  the  heart  has  four 
chambers ;  in  reptiles  it  has  but  three. 

Mammals  and  reptiles  both  have  teeth,  a  character 
possessed  by  no  existing  bird;  but  fossil  birds  appar- 
ently prove  that  early  in  the  development  of  the  class 
all  birds  had  teeth. 

Thus  we  might  continue  the  comparison,  finding  that 
birds  have  no  universal  peculiarities  of  structure  which 
are  not  present  in  some  degree  in  either  mammals  or 
reptiles,  until  we  come  to  their  external  covering.  The 
reptile  is  scaled,  and  so  is  the  fish  ;  the  mammal  is  haired, 
and  so  are  some  insects ;  but  birds  alone  possess  feathers. 
They  are  worn  by  every  bird — a  fit  clothing  for  a  body 
which  is  a  marvelous  combination  of  beauty,  lightness, 
and  strength. 

There  is  good  evidence  for  the  belief  that  birds  have 
descended  from  reptilian  ancestors.  This  evidence  con- 
sists of  the  remains  of  fossil  birds,  some  of  which  show 
marked  reptilian  characters  and,  as  just  said,  are  toothed 


ANCESTORS  OF  BIRDS.  3 

It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  here  the  relationships  of  the 
birdlike  reptiles,  but,  as  the  most  convincing  argument 
in  support  of  the  theory  of  the  reptilian  descent  of  birds, 
I  present  a  restoration  of  the  Archseopteryx,  the  earliest 
known  progenitor  of  the  class  Aves.  This  restoration  is 


FIG.  1.— Restoration  of  the  Archacopteryx,  a  toothed,  reptilelike  bird  of  the 
Jurassic  period.     (About  1/5  natural  size.) 

based  on  an  examination  of  previous  restorations  in  con- 
nection with  a  study  of  the  excellent  plates  which  have 
been  published  of  the  fossils  themselves.*  Two  speci- 
mens have  been  discovered ;  one  being  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  the  other  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  They  were 
both  found  in  the  lithographic  slates  of  Solenhofen,  in 
Bavaria,  a  formation  of  the  Jurassic  period,  and,  together, 
furnish  the  more  important  details  of  the  structure  of  this 
reptilelike  bird. 

This  restoration,  therefore,  while  doubtless  inaccurate 


*  For  recent  papers  on  the  Archaeopteryx  see  Natural  Science 
(Macmillan  Co.),  vols.  v-viii. 


4  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BIRDS. 

in  minor  points,  is  still  near  enough  to  the  truth  to  give 
a  correct  idea  of  this  extraordinary  bird's  appearance. 

The  Archaeopteryx  was  about  the  size  of  a  Crow.  Its 
long,  feathered  tail  is  supposed  to  have  acted  as  an  aero- 
plane, assisting  in  the  support  of  the  bird  while  it  was 
in  the  air,  but  its  power  of  flight  was  doubtless  limited. 
It  was  arboreal  and  probably  never  descended  -to  the 
earth,  but  climbed  about  the  branches  of  trees,  using  its 
large,  hooked  fingers  in  passing  from  limb  to  limb. 

The  wanderings  of  this  almost  quadrupedal  creature 
must  necessarily  have  been  limited,  but  its  winged  de- 
scendants of  to-day  are  more  generally  distributed  than 
are  any  other  animals.*  They  roam  the  earth  from  pole 
to  pole ;  they  are  equally  at  home  on  a  wave-washed 
coral  reef  or  in  an  arid  desert,  amid  arctic  snows  or  in 
the  shades  of  a  tropical  forest.  This  is  due  not  alone  to 
their  powers  of  flight  but  to  their  adaptability  to  vary- 
ing conditions  of  life.  Although,  as  I  have  said,  birds 
are  more  closely  related  among  themselves  than  are  the 
members  of  either  of  the  other  higher  groups  of  animals, 
and  all  birds  agree  in  possessing  the  more  important 
distinguishing  characters  of  their  class,  yet  they  show  a 
wide  range  of  variation  in  structure. 

This,  in  most  instances,  is  closely  related  to  habits, 

*  On  the  distribution  of  animals  read  Allen,  The  Geographical 
Distribution  of  North  American  Mammals,  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  city,  iv,  1892,  pp.  199-244; 
four  maps.  Allen,  The  Geographical  Origin  and  Distribution  of  North 
American  Birds  considered  in  Relation  to  Faunal  Areas  of  North 
America,  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  x,  1893,  pp.  97-150 ;  two  maps. 
Merriam,  The  Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  America,  with 
Special  Reference  to  Mammalia,  Proceedings  of  the  Biological  Society 
of  Washington,  vii,  1892,  pp.  1-64 ;  one  map.  Merriam,  Laws  of  Tem- 
perature Control  of  the  Geographic  Distribution  of  Terrestrial  Ani- 
mals and  Plants,  National  Geographic  Magazine  (Washington),  vi, 
1894,  pp.  229-238 ;  three  maps. 


RELATION  OF  BIRDS  TO  MAN.  5 

which  in  birds  are  doubtless  more  varied  than  in  any 
of  the  other  higher  animals.  Some  birds,  like  Penguins, 
are  so  aquatic  that  they  are  practically  helpless  on  land. 
Their  wings  are  too  small  to  support  them  in  the  air,  but 
they  fly  under  water  with  great  rapidity,  and  might  be 
termed  feathered  porpoises.  Others,  like  the  Ostrich, 
are  terrestrial,  and  can  neither  fly  nor  swim.  Others 
still,  like  the  Frigate  Birds,  are  aerial.  Their  small 
feet  are  of  use  only  in  perching,  and  their  home  is  in 
the  air. 

If  now  we  should  compare  specimens  of  Penguins, 
Ostriches,  and  Frigate-birds  with  each  other,  and  with 
such  widely  different  forms  as  Hummingbirds,  Wood- 
peckers, Parrots,  and  others,  we  would  realize  still  more 
clearly  the  remarkable  amount  of  variation  shown  by 
birds.  This  great  difference  in  form  is  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  variation  in  habit,  making  possible,  as 
before  remarked,  the  wide  distribution  of  birds,  which, 
together  with  their  size  and  abundance,  renders  them  of 
incalculable  importance  to  man.  Their  economic  value, 
however,  may  be  more  properly  spoken  of  under 

The  Relation  of  Birds  to  Man. — The  relation  of  birds 
to  man  is  threefold — the  scientific,  the  economic,  and  the 
aesthetic.  No  animals  form  more  profitable  subjects  for 
the  scientist  than  birds.  The  embryologist,  the  morphol- 
ogist,  and  the  systematist,  the  philosophic  naturalist  and 
the  psychologist,  all  may  find  in  them  exhaustless  mate- 
rial for  study.  It  is  not  rny  purpose,  however,  to  speak 
here  of  the  science  of  ornithology.  Let  us  learn  some- 
thing of  the  bird  in  its  haunts  before  taking  it  to  the 
laboratory.  The  living  bird  can  not  fail  to  attract  us; 
the  dead  bird — voiceless,  motionless — we  will  leave  for 
future  dissection. 

The  economic  value  of  birds  to  man  lies  in  the  service 
they  render  in  preventing  the  undue  increase  of  insects, 


6  ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  BIRDS. 

in  devouring  small  rodents,  in  destroying  the  seeds  of 
harmful  plants,  and  in  acting  as  scavengers. 

Leading  entomologists  estimate  that  insects  cause  an 
annual  loss  of  at  least  two  hundred  million  dollars  to  the 
agricultural  interests  of  the  United  States.  The  state- 
ment seems  incredible,  but  is  based  upon  reliable  sta- 
tistics. This,  of  course,  does  not  include  the  damage 
done  to  ornamental  shrubbery,  shade  and  forest  trees. 
But  if  insects  are  the  natural  enemies  of  vegetation,  birds 
are  the  natural  enemies  of  insects.  Consider  for  a  mo- 
ment what  the  birds  are  doing  for  us  any  summer  day, 
when  insects  are  so  abundant  that  the  hum  of  their  united 
voices  becomes  an  almost  inherent  part  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  the  air  Swallows  and  Swifts  are  coursing  rapidly 
to  and  fro,  ever  in  pursuit  of  the  insects  which  constitute 
their  sole  food.  When  they  retire,  the  Nighthawks  and 
Whip-poor-wills  will  take  up  the  chase,  catching  moths 
and  other  nocturnal  insects  which  would  escape  day -flying 
birds.  The  Flycatchers  lie  in  wait,  darting  from  ambush 
at  passing  prey,  and  with  a  suggestive  click  of  the  bill 
returning  to  their  post.  The  Warblers,  light,  active  crea- 
tures, flutter  about  the  terminal  foliage,  and  with  almost 
the  skill  of  a  Hummingbird  pick  insects  from  leaf  or 
blossom.  The  Vireos  patiently  explore  the  under  sides  of 
leaves  and  odd  nooks  and  corners  to  see  that  no  skulker 
escapes.  The  Woodpeckers,  Nuthatches,  and  Creepers 
attend  to  the  tree  trunks  and  limbs,  examining  carefully 
each  inch  of  bark  for  insects'  eggs  and  larvae,  or  exca- 
vating for  the  ants  and  borers  they  hear  at  work  within. 
On  the  ground  the  hunt  is  continued  by  the  Thrushes, 
Sparrows,  and  other  birds,  who  feed  upon  the  innumer- 
able forms  of  terrestrial  insects.  Few  places  in  which 
insects  exist  are  neglected ;  even  some  species  which  pass 
their  earlier  stages  or  entire  lives  in  the  water  are  preyed 
upon  by  aquatic  birds. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  BIRDS.  7 

Birds  digest  their  food  so  rapidly,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
estimate  from  the  contents  of  a  bird's  stomach  at  a  given 
time  how  much  it  eats  during  the  day.  The  stomach  of  a 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  shot  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
contained  the  partially  digested  remains  of  forty-three 
tent  caterpillars,  but  how  many  it  would  have  eaten  be- 
fore night  no  one  can  say. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush,  Ornithologist  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  of  Massachusetts,  states  that  the  stomachs 
of  four  Chickadees  contained  one  thousand  and  twenty- 
eight  eggs  of  the  cankerworm.  The  stomachs  of  four 
other  birds  of  the  same  species  contained  about  six 
hundred  eggs  and  one  hundred  and  five  female  moths 
of  the  cankerworm.  The  average  number  of  eggs 
found  in  twenty  of  these  moths  was  one  hundred  and 
eighty-five ;  and  as  it  is  estimated  that  a  Chickadee  may 
eat  thirty  female  cankerworm  moths  per  day  during 
the  twenty -five  days  which  these  moths  crawl  up  trees, 
it  follows  that  in  this  period  each  Chickadee  would  de- 
stroy one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  eggs  of  this  noxious  insect. 

Professor  Forbes,  Director  of  the  Illinois  State  Lab- 
oratory of  Natural  History,  found  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  larvae  of  Bibio — a  fly  which  in  the  larval 
stage  feeds  •  on  the  roots  of  grass — in  the  stomach  of  a 
single  Kobin,  and  the  intestine  contained  probably  as 
many  more. 

Many  additional  cases  could  be  cited,  showing  the 
intimate  relation  of  birds  to  insect-life,  and  emphasizing 
the  necessity  of  protecting  and  encouraging  these  little- 
appreciated  allies  of  the  agriculturist. 

The  service  rendered  man  by  birds  in  killing  the 
small  rodents  so  destructive  to  crops  is  performed  by 
Hawks  and  Owls — birds  the  uninformed  farmer  con- 
siders his  enemies.  The  truth  is  that,  with  two  excep- 


8  ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  BIRDS. 

tions,  the  Sharp-shinned  and  Cooper's  Hawk,  all  our  com- 
moner Hawks  and  Owls  are  beneficial.  In  his  exhaust- 
ive study  of  the  foods  of  these  birds  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher, 
Assistant  Ornithologist  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  has  found  that  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
food  of  the  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  commonly  called 
"  Chicken  Hawk  "  or  "  Hen  Hawk,"  consists  of  injurious 
mammals  and  insects,  while  two  hundred  castings  of  the 
Barn  Owl  contained  the  skulls  of  four  hundred  and  fifty- 
four  small  mammals,  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  of  these  being  skulls  of  the  destructive  field  or  meadow 
mouse. 

Still,  these  birds  are  not  only  not  protected,  but  in 
some  States  a  price  is  actually  set  upon  their  heads ! 
Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  Ornithologist  and  Mammalogist 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has 
estimated  that  in  offering  a  bounty  on  Hawks  and  Owls, 
which  resulted  in  the  killing  of  over  one  hundred  thou- 
sand of  these  birds,  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  sustained  a 
loss  of  nearly  four  million  dollars  in  one  year  and  a  half ! 

As  destroyers  of  the  seeds  of  harmful  plants,  the  good 
done  by  birds  can  not  be  overestimated.  From  late  fall 
to  early  spring,  seeds  form  the  only  food  of  many  birds, 
and  every  keeper  of  cage-birds  can  realize  how  many  a 
bird  may  eat  in  a  day.  Thus,  while  the  Chickadees,  Nut- 
hatches, Woodpeckers,  and  some  other  winter  birds  are 
ridding  the  trees  of  myriads  of  insects'  eggs  and  larvae, 
the  granivorous  birds  are  reaping  a  crop  of  seeds  which, 
if  left  to  germinate,  would  cause  a  heavy  loss  to  our  agri- 
cultural interests. 

As  scavengers  we  understand  that  certain  birds  are  of 
value  to  us,  and  therefore  we  protect  them.  Thus  the 
Yultures  or  Buzzards  of  the  South  are  protected  both  by 
law  and  public  sentiment,  and  as  a  result  they  are  not 
only  exceedingly  abundant,  but  remarkably  tame.  But 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  BIRDS.  9 

we  do  not  realize  that  Gulls  and  some  other  water  birds 
are  also  beneficial  as  scavengers  in  eating  refuse  which, 
if  left  floating  on  the  water,  would  often  be  cast  ashore 
to  decay.  Dr.  George  F.  Gaumer,  of  Yucatan,  tells  me 
that  the  killing  of  immense  numbers  of  Herons  and  other 
littoral  birds  in  Yucatan  has  been  followed  by  an  increase 
in  human  mortality  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast, 
which  he  is  assured  is  a  direct  result  of  the  destruction  of 
birds  that  formerly  assisted  in  keeping  the  beaches  and 
bayous  free  from  decaying  animal  matter. 

Lack  of  space  forbids  an  adequate  treatment  of  this 
subject,  but  reference  to  the  works  and  papers  mentioned 
below*  will  support  the  statement  that,  if  we  were  de- 
prived of  the  services  of  birds,  the  earth  would  soon 
become  uninhabitable. 

Nevertheless,  the  feathered  protectors  of  our  farms 
and  gardens,  plains  and  forests,  require  so  little  encour- 
agement from  us — indeed,  ask  only  tolerance — that  we 
accept  their  services  much  as  we  do  the  air  we  breathe. 
We  may  be  in  debt  to  them  past  reckoning,  and  still  be 
unaware  of  their  existence. 

But  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  form  and  plumage  of 

*  Notes  on  the  Nature  of  the  Food  of  the  Birds  of  Nebraska,  by 
S.  Aughey;  First  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Entomological 
Commission  for  the  Year  1877,  Appendix  ii,  pp.  13-62.  The  Food  of 
Birds,  by  S.  A.  Forbes ;  Bulletin  No.  3,  Illinois  State  Laboratory  of 
Natural  History,  1880,  pp.  80-148.  The  Regulative  Action  of  Birds 
upon  Insect  Oscillations,  by  S.  A.  Forbes,  ibid.,  Bulletin  No.  6,  1883, 
pp.  3-32.  Economic  Relations  of  Wisconsin  Birds,  by  F.  H.  King ; 
Wisconsin  Geological  Survey,  vol.  i,  1882,  pp.  441-610.  Report  on  the 
Birds  of  Pennsylvania,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Food  Habits, 
based  on  over  Four  Thousand  Stomach  Examinations,  by  B.  H.  War- 
ren ;  Harrisburg,  E.  K.  Meyers,  State  Printer,  large  8vo,  pp.  434,  plates 
100.  The  English  Sparrow  in  North  America,  especially  in  its  Rela- 
tion to  Agriculture,  prepared  under  the  Direction  of  C.  Hart  Merriam, 
by  Walter  B.  Barrows ;  Bulletin  No.  1,  Division  of  Economic  Orni- 
thology and  Mammalogy  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 


10  ESTHETIC  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS. 

birds,  their  grace  of  motion  and  musical  powers,  we  must 
know  them.  Then,  too,  we  will  be  attracted  by  their 
high  mental  development,  or  what  I  have  elsewhere 
spoken  of  as  "their  human  attributes.  Man  exhibits 
hardly  a  trait  which  he  will  not  find  reflected  in  the  life 
of  a  bird.  Love,  hate ;  courage,  fear ;  anger,  pleasure ; 
vanity,  modesty ;  virtue,  vice ;  constancy,  fickleness ;  gen- 
erosity, selfishness ;  wit,  curiosity,  memory,  reason — we 
may  find  them  all  exhibited  in  the  lives  of  birds.  Birds 
have  thus  become  symbolic  of  certain  human  character- 
istics, and  the  more  common  species  are  so  interwoven  in 
our  art  and  literature  that  by  name  at  least  they  are 
known  to  all  of  us." 

The  sight  of  a  bird  or  the  sound  of  its  voice  is  at  all 
times  an  event  of  such  significance  to  me,  a  source  of 
such  unfailing  pleasure,  that  when  I  go  afield  with  those 
to  whom  birds  are  strangers,  I  am  deeply  impressed  by 
the  comparative  barrenness  of  their  world,  for  they  live 
in  ignorance  of  the  great  store  of  enjoyment  which  might 
be  theirs  for  the  asking. 

I  count  each  day  memorable  that  brought  me  a  new 
friend  among  the  birds.  It  was  an  event  to  be  recorded 
in  detail.  A  creature  which,  up  to  that  moment,  existed 

ture,  1889.  The  Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States  in  their  Rela- 
tion to  Agriculture,  prepared  under  the  Direction  of  C.  Hart  Mer- 
riam,  by  A.  K.  Fisher;  Bulletin  No.  3,  ibid.,  1893.  The  Common 
Crow  of  the  United  States,  by  Walter  B.  Barrows  and  E.  A.  Schwarz; 
Bulletin  No.  6,  ibid.,  1895.  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Food  of 
Woodpeckers,  by  F.  E.  L.  Beal ;  Bulletin  No.  7,  ibid.,  1895.  (See  also 
other  papers  on  the  food  of  birds  in  the  Annual  Report  and  Year- 
book of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.)  Birds  as 
Protectors  of  Orchards,  by  E.  H.  Forbush  ;  Bulletin  No.  3,  Massachu- 
setts State  Board  of  Agriculture.  1895,  pp.  20-32.  The  Crow  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, by  E.  H.  Forbush;  Bulletin  No.  4,  ibid.,  1896.  How 
Birds  affect  the  Farm  and  Garden,  by  Florence  A.  Merriam;  re- 
printed from  "  Forest  and  Stream,"  1896,  16mo,  pp.  31.  Price,  5 
cents. 


ESTHETIC  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS.  U 

for  me  only  as  a  name,  now  became  an  inhabitant  of  nry 
woods,  a  part  of  my  life.  With  what  a  new  interest  I 
got  down  my  books  again,  eagerly  reading  every  item 
concerning  this  new  friend  ;  its  travels,  habits,  and  notes ; 
comparing  the  observations  of  others  with  what  were 
now  my  own  ! 

The  study  of  birds  is  not  restricted  to  any  special  sea- 
son. Some  species  are  always  with  us.  Long  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen  and  the  fields  are  bare  and  brown, 
when  insect  voices  are  hushed,  and  even  some  mammals 
are  sleeping  their  winter  sleep,  the  cheery  Juncos  flit 
about  our  doorstep,  the  White-throats  twitter  cozily  from 
the  evergreens,  Tree  Sparrows  chatter  gayly  over  their 
breakfast  of  seeds,  and  Crows  are  calling  from  the  woods. 
Birds  are  the  only  living  creatures  to  be  seen ;  what  a 
sense  of  companionship  their  presence  gives ;  how  deso- 
late the  earth  would  seem  without  them  ! 

The  ease  with  which  we  may  become  familiar  with 
these  feathered  neighbors  of  ours  robs  ignorance  of  all 
excuses.  Once  aware  of  their  existence,  and  we  shall  see 
a  bird  in  every  bush  and  find  the  heavens  their  pathway. 
One  moment  we  may  admire  their  beauty  of  plumage, 
the  next  marvel  at  the  ease  and  grace  with  which  they 
dash  by  us  or  circle  high  overhead. 

But  birds  will  appeal  to  us  most  strongly  through 
their  songs.  When  your  ears  are  attuned  to  the  music 
of  birds,  your  world  will  be  transformed.  Birds'  songs 
are  the  most  eloquent  of  Nature's  voices :  the  gay  carol  of 
the  Grosbeak  in  the  morning,  the  dreamy,  midday  call 
of  the  Pewee,  the  vesper  hymn  of  the  Thrush,  the  clang- 
ing of  Geese  in  the  springtime,  the  farewell  of  the  Blue- 
bird in  the  fall — how  clearly  each  one  expresses  the  senti- 
ment of  the  hour  or  season  ! 

Having  learned  a  bird's  language,  you  experience  an 
increased  feeling  of  comradeship  with  it.  You  may  even 


12  ESTHETIC  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS. 

share  its  emotions  as  you  learn  the  significance  of  its 
notes.  'No  one  can  listen  to  the  song  of  the  Mockingbird 
without  being  in  some  way  affected ;  but  in  how  many 
hearts  does  the  tink  of  the  night-flying  Bobolink  find  a 
response  ?  I  never  hear  it  without  wishing  the  brave 
little  traveler  Godspeed  on  his  long  journey. 

As  time  passes  you  will  find  that  the  songs  of  birds 
bring  a  constantly  increasing  pleasure.  This  is  the  result 
of  association.  The  places  and  people  that  make  our 
world  are  ever  changing ;  the  present  slips  from  us  with 
growing  rapidity,  but  the  birds  are  ever  with  us. 

The  Robin  singing  so  cheerily  outside  my  window 
sings  not  for  himself  alone,  but  for  hundreds  of  Robins  I 
have  known  at  other  times  and  places.  His  song  recalls 
a  March  evening,  warm  with  the  promise  of  spring ;  May 
mornings,  when  all  the  world  seemed  to  ring  with  the 
voices  of  birds  ;  June  days,  when  cherries  were  ripening ; 
the  winter  sunlit  forests  of  Florida,  and  even  the  snow- 
capped summit  of  glorious  Popocatepetl.  And  so  it  is 
with  other  birds.  We  may,  it  is  true,  have  known  them 
for  years,  but  they  have  not  changed,  and  their  familiar 
notes  and  appearance  encourage  the  pleasant  self-delusion 
that  we  too  are  the  same. 

The  slender  saplings  of  earlier  years  now  give  wide- 
spreading  shade,  the  scrubby  pasture  lot  has  become  a 
dense  woodland.  Boyhood's  friends  are  boys  no  longer, 
and,  worst  of  all,  there  has  appeared  another  generation 
of  boys  whose  presence  is  discouraging  proof  that  for  us 
youth  has  past.  Then  some  May  morning  we  hear  the 
Wood  Thrush  sing.  Has  he,  too,  changed  ?  Not  one 
note,  and  as  his  silvery  voice  rings  through  the  woods 
we  are  young  again.  "No  fountain  of  youth  could  be 
more  potent.  A  hundred  incidents  of  the  long  ago  be- 
come as  real  as  those  of  yesterday.  And  here  we  have 
the  secret  of  youth  in  age  which  every  venerable  natural- 


ESTHETIC  RELATIONS  OF  BIRDS.  13 

1st  I  have  ever  met  has  convincingly  illustrated.  I  could 
name  nearly  a  dozen,  living  and  dead,  whom  it  has  been 
my  valued  privilege  to  know.  All  had  passed  the  allotted 
threescore  and  ten,  and  some  were  over  fourscore.  The 
friends  and  associates  of  their  earlier  days  had  passed 
away,  and  one  might  imagine  that  they  had  no  interest 
in  life  and  were  simply  waiting  for  the  end. 

But  these  veterans  were  old  in  years  only.  Their 
hearts  were  young.  The  earth  was  fair;  plants  still 
bloomed,  and  birds  sang  for  them.  There  was  no  idle 
waiting  here ;  the  days  were  all  too  short.  With  what 
boyish  ardor  they  told  of  some  recent  discovery ;  what 
inspiration  there  was  in  their  enthusiasm  ! 

So  I  say  to  you,  if  you  would  reap  the  purest  pleas- 
ures of  youth,  manhood,  and  old  age,  go  to  the  birds  and 
through  them  be  brought  within  the  ennobling  influences 
of  Nature. 


CHAPTEK  II. 
THE  LIVING  BIRD. 

Factors  of  Evolution. — If  while  in  the  fields  we  ob- 
serve birds  with  an  appreciative  eye,  we  shall  soon  be 
impressed  with  the  great  diversity  shown  in  their  struc- 
ture and  habits.  The  Fish  Hawk  plunges  from  the  air 
into  the  water  and  grasps  its  prey  with  merciless  talons. 
The  Hummingbird  daintily  probes  a  flower.  The  Wood- 
pecker climbs  an  upright  trunk,  props  itself  with  its 
stiff,  pointed  tail-feathers,  while  with  its  chisel-shaped 
bill  it  excavates  a  grub  and  then  impales  it  with  its 
spearlike  tongue.  These  birds  tell  us  a  wonderful  story 


FIG.  2.— End  of  spearlike  tongue  of  Pileated  Woodpecker.     (Much  enlarged.) 

of  adaptation  to  the  conditions  of  life,  and,  knowing  that 
they  have  descended  from  a  common  ancestor,  we  ask, 
"  Why  do  they  now  differ  so  widely  from  one  another  ? " 
Biologists  the  world  over  are  trying  to  satisfactorily 
answer  this  question,  and  it  is  impossible  for  me  to 
even  mention  here  all  the  theories  which  they  have 
advanced.  However,  some  knowledge  of  the  most  im- 
portant ones  is  essential  if  you  would  study  the  relation 
between  the  bird  and  its  haunts  and  habits.  The  Dar- 
win-Wallace theory  of  Natural  Selection,  in  more  or  less 

14 


EVOLUTION  OF  BIRDS.  15 

modified  forms,  is  accepted  by  most  naturalists.  As 
originally  presented,  it  assumed  that  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  any  animal  depended  upon  its  adaptation  to  its 
manner  of  life.  Among  a  large  number  of  individuals 
there  is  much  variation  in  size,  form,  and  color.  Some 
of  these  variations  might  prove  favorable,  others  unfa- 
vorable. Those  which  were  favorable  would  give  to  the 
individual  possessing  them  an  advantage  over  its  fellows, 
and,  by  what  is  termed  Natural  Selection,  it  would  be 
preserved  and  its  favorable  characters  transmitted  to  its 
descendants.  But  the  less  fortunate  individuals,  which 
lacked  the  favorable  variation,  would  be  handicapped  in 
the  race  for  life  and  be  less  likely  to  survive. 

Without  necessarily  opposing  this  theory,  the  follow- 
ers of  Darwin's  predecessor,  Lamarck,  attach  more  im- 
portance to  the  direct  action  of  environment  on  the  ani- 
mal— that  is,  the  influence  of  climate,  food,  and  habit. 
The  effect  of  the  first  two  I  will  speak  of  in  treating  of 
color ;  the  last  we  may  use  to  illustrate  the  difference  in 
these  two  theories  by  asking  the  question,  "  Is  habit  due 
to  structure,  or  is  structure  the  result  of  habit  ? "  Has 
Nature,  acting  through  natural  selection,  preserved  those 
variations  which  would  best  fit  a  bird  to  occupy  its 
place  in  the  world,  and  are  its  habits  the  outcome  of 
the  characters  thus  acquired,  or  have  the  changes  which 
during  the  ages  have  occurred  in  a  bird's  home,  forcing 
it  to  alter  its  habits,  been  followed  by  some  consequent 
change  in  structure,  the  result  of  use  or  of  disuse  ?  For 
my  part,  I  answer  "  Yes  "  to  both  questions,  and  turn  to 
our  stiff-tailed,  spear-tongued  Woodpecker  to  explain 
my  reply.  I  can  readily  understand  how  the  shape  of 
these  tail-feathers  is  the  result  of  habit,  for  the  same  or 
similar  structure  exists  among  many  birds  having  no 
close  relationship  to  one  another,  but  all  of  which  agree 
in  their  peculiar  use  of  the  tail  as  a  prop ;  the  Creep- 


EVOLUTION  OF  BIRDS. 


ers,  Woodhewers,  and  Swifts,  even  some  Finches  and 
the  Bobolink,  that  use  their  tail  to  support  them  when 
perched  on  swaying  reeds,  have  the  feathers  more  or 
less  pointed  and  stiffened.  Furthermore,  this  is  just  the 
result  we  should  expect  from  a  habit  of  this  kind.  But 


FIG.  3.— Tip  of  tail  of  (a)  Downy  Woodpecker  and  of  (b)  Brown  Creeper,  to 
show  the  pointed  shape  in  tails  of  creeping  birds  of  different  families. 
(Natural  size.) 

I  do  not  understand  how  the  Woodpecker's  spear-tipped 
tongue  could  have  resulted  from  the  habit  of  impaling 
grubs,  and  in  this  case  I  should  be  inclined  to  regard 
structure  as  due  to  a  natural  selection  which  has  pre- 
served favorable  variations  in  the  form  of  this  organ. 

I  have  not  space  to  discuss  this  subject  more  fully, 
but  trust  that  enough  has  been  said  to  so  convince  you 
of  the  significance  of  habit,  that  when  you  see  a  bird  in 
the  bush  it  will  not  seem  a  mere  automaton,  but  in  each 
movement  will  give  you  evidence  of  a  nice  adjustment 
ta  its  surroundings.  Remember,  too,  that  evolution  is  a 
thing  of  the  present  as  well  as  of  the  past.  We  may  not 
be  able  to  read  the  earlier  pages  in  the  history  of  a  species, 
but  the  record  of  to-day  is  open  to  us  if  we  can  learn  to 
interpret  it. 

This  may  be  made  clearer,  and  the  importance  of  a 
study  of  habit  be  emphasized,  if  I  briefly  outline  the  rela- 
tion between  the  wings,  tail,  feet,  and  bill  of  birds  and 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  used.  We  are  in  the  field, 
not  in  the  dissecting  room ;  our  instrument  is  a  field  glass, 
not  a  scalpel,  and  in  learning  the  functions  of  these  four 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING.  17 

organs  we  shall  direct  our  attention  to  their  external  form 
rather  than  their  internal  structure. 

The  Wing. — Birds'  wings  are  primarily  organs  of 
locomotion,  but  they  are  also  used  as  weapons,  as  musical 
instruments,  in  expressing  emotion,  and  they  are  some- 


FIG.  4. — Young  Hoatzin,  showing  use  of  hooked  fingers  in  climbing. 

Lucas.) 


(After 


times  the  seat  of  sexual  adornment.  As  an  organ  of  loco- 
motion the  wing's  most  primitve  use  is  doubtless  for 
climbing.  Gallinules,  for  instance,  have  a  small  spur  on 
the  wrist  or  "  bend  of  the  wing,"  and  the  young  birds 
use  it  to  assist  their  progress  among  the  reeds.  A  more 
striking  instance  of  this  nature  is  shown  by  that  singular 
South  American  bird,  the  Hoatzin  (Opisthocomus  cris- 
3 


18 


FOEM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING. 


tatus).  The  young  of  this  bird  have  well-developed  claws 
on  the  thumb  and  first  finger,  and  long  before  they  can 
fly  they  use  them  as  aids  in  clambering  about  the  bushes, 
very  much  as  we  may  imagine  the  Archseopteryx  did. 
In  the  adult  these  claws  are  wanting. 

Some  eminently  aquatic  birds,  as  Grebes  and  Pen- 
guins, when  on  land,  may  use  their  wings  as  fore  legs  in 
scrambling  awkwardly  along  ;  while  some  flightless  birds, 
for  example,  the  Ostrich,  spread  their  wings  when  run- 
ning. 

But  let  us  consider  the  wing  in  its  true  office,  that  of 
an  organ  of  flight,  showing  its  range  of  variation,  and 

finally  its  degradation  into 
a  flightless  organ.  Among 
flying  birds  the  spread 
wings  measure  in  extent 
from  about  three  inches  in 
^  gmai}est  Hummingbird 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet 
in  the .  Wandering  Albatross.  The  relation  between 
shape  of  wing  and  style  of  flight  is  so  close  that  if  you 
show  an  ornithologist  a  bird's  wing  he  can  generally 
tell  you  the  character  of  its  owner's  flight.  The  ex- 
tremes are  shown  by  the  short-winged  ground  birds, 


ig  an< 

foot  of  Little  Black  Rail,  a  terres- 
trial bird.     (3/5  natural  size.) 


FIG. 


-Long,  pointed  wing  and  small  foot  of  Tree  Swallow,  an  aerial  bird. 
(3/6  natural  size.) 


such  as  Eail,  Quail,  Grouse,  certain  Sparrows,  etc.,  and 
long-winged  birds,  like  the  Swallows  and  Albatrosses. 
There  is  here  a  close  and,  for  the  ground-inhabiting 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING.  19 

birds,  important  relation  between  form  and  habit. 
Many  terrestrial  species  rely  on  their  dull,  protective 
covering  to  escape  observation,  taking  wing  only  when 
danger  is  so  near  that  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  get 
under  way  at  once.  Consequently,  Quail,  Partridges, 
and  Grouse,  much  to  the  amateur  sportsman's  discom- 
fiture, spring  from  the  ground  as  though  thrown  from 
a  catapult,  and  reach  their  highest  speed  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  starting  point,  while  the  Albatross  is  obliged 
to  face  the  wind  and  run  some  distance  over  the  ground 
or  water  before  slowly  lifting  itself  into  the  air.  There, 
however,  it  can  remain  for  hours  or  even  days  without 
once  alighting. 

The  Frigate  Bird,  or  Man-o'-War  Bird,  has  a  body 
scarcely  larger  than  that  of  a  chicken,  but  its  tail  is  one 
foot  and  a  half  in  length,  and  its  wings  measure  seven  to 


FIG.  V.— Frigate  Bird.     (Expanse  of  wings,  7  to  8  feet.) 

eight  feet  in  extent.  Having  this  enormous  spread  of 
sail,  its  flight  is  more  easy  and  graceful  than  that  of  any 
living  bird.  I  have  seen  hundreds  of  these  birds  floating 
in  the  air,  facing  the  wind,  without  apparent  change  of 
position  or  the  movement  of  a  pinion,  for  long  intervals 
of  time. 

From  this  extreme  development  of  the  wing  as  a 
flight-organ,  let  us  turn  to  those  birds  who  have  not 
the  power  of  flight.  The  Ostrich,  Ehea,  Emu,  and 
Cassowary  are  familar  representatives  of  this  group.  It 
is  generally  believed  that  these  birds  have  lost  the  power 


20  FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING. 

of  flight,  and  that  as  their  wings,  through  disuse,  became 
functionless,  their  running  powers  correspondingly  in- 
creased. This,  however,  is  theory,  but  there  are  birds 
which  have  become  flightless  through  some  apparently 
known  cause.  They  may  be  found  among  such  widely 
separated  families  as  Grebes,  Auks,  Ducks,  Rails,  Galli- 
nules,  Pigeons,  and  Parrots. 

One  of  the  characteristic  water  birds  of  our  North 
Atlantic  coasts  is  the  Razor-billed  Auk.  It  is  a  strictly 
aquatic  species,  nearly  helpless  on  land,  which,  as  a  rule, 
it  visits  only  when  nesting.  Its  egg  is  laid  in  the  crevice 
of  a  rocky  cliff,  frequently  at  some  height  from  the  sea. 
During  the  winter  it  migrates  southward  as  far  as  Long 
Island.  Flight  is  therefore  a  necessary  faculty,  and  we 
find  the  bird  with  well-developed  wings,  which  it  uses 
effectively.  We  can,  however,  imagine  conditions  under 
which  it  would  not  be  necessary  for  the  Razor-bill  to 
fly.  It  might  become  a  permanent  resident  of  isolated 
islands,  laying  its  egg  on  accessible  beaches.  Already 
an  expert  diver,  obtaining  its  food  in  the  water,  it  would 
not  be  obliged  to  rise  into  the  air,  and,  as  a  result  of  dis- 
use, the  wings  would  finally  become  too  small  to  support  it 
in  aerial  flight,  though  fully  answering  the  purpose  of  oars. 

Apparently  this  is  what  has  happened  in  the  case  of 
the  Razor-billed  Auk's  relative,  the  flightless,  extinct 
Great  Auk.  The  Razor-bill  is  sixteen  inches  long  and 
its  wing  measures  eight  inches,  while  the  Great  Auk, 
with  a  length  of  thirty  inches,  has  a  wing  only  five  and 
three  fourths  inches  in  length.  Aside  from  this  differ- 
ence in  measurements  these  birds  closely  resemble  each 
other.  So  far  as  we  are  familiar  with  the  Great  Auk's 
habits,  they  agreed  with  those  of  the  hypothetical  case  I 
have  just  mentioned,  and  we  are  warranted,  I  think,  in 
assuming  that  the  bird  lost  the  power  of  flight  through 
disuse  of  its  wings. 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING.  21 

In  antarctic  seas  we  find  the  arctic  Auks  replaced 
by  the  Penguins,  a  group  in  which  all  the  members  are 
flightless.  They  are  possessed  of  remarkable  aquatic 


FIG.  8. — Great  Auk,  showing  relatively  small  wing.     (Length  of  bird,  30 
inches ;  of  wing,  5'75  inches.) 

powers,  and  can,  it  is  said,  outswim  even  fish.  They 
nest  only  on  isolated  islands,  where  they  are  not  exposed 
to  the  attack  of  predaceous  mammals. 

Among  Grebes  and  Ducks  we  have  illustrations  of 
the  way  in  which  swimming  birds  may  become  tempo- 
rarily flightless.  With  most  land-inhabiting  birds  flight 
is  so  important  a  faculty  that  any  injury  to  the  wings  is 
apt  to  result  fatally.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that 
the  power  of  flight  shall  not  be  impaired.  Conse- 
quently, when  molting,  the  wing-feathers  are  shed 
slowly  and  symmetrically,  from  the  middle  of  the  wing 
both  inwardly  and  outwardly;  the  new  feathers  ap- 
pear so  quickly  that  at  no  time  are  there  more  than 
two  or  three  quills  missing  from  either  wing.  But  the 


22  FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING. 

aquatic  Grebes  and  Ducks,  protected  by  the  nature  of 
their  haunts  and  habits,  lose  all  their  wing-feathers  at 
once,  and  are  flightless  until  their  new  plumage  has 
grown. 

It  might  then  be  supposed  that  permanently  flightless 
forms  would  be  found  among  the  Grebes  and  Ducks. 
But  these  birds  are  generally  migratory,  or,  if  resident, 
they  usually  inhabit  bodies  of  fresh  water  where  local 
conditions  or  droughts  may  so  affect  the  food  supply  that 
change  of  residence  would  become  necessary.  However, 
on  Lake  Titicaca,  Peru,  there  actually  is  a  Grebe  which 
has  lived  there  long  enough  to  have  lost  the  use  of  its 
wings  as  flight-organs. 

Rails  are  such  ground-lovers,  and  fly  so  little,  that  we 
should  expect  to  find  flightless  forms  among  them  when 
the  surroundings  were  favorable  for  their  development. 
In  New  Zealand,  that  island  of  so  many  flightless  birds, 
the  requirements  are  evidently  fulfilled,  and  we  have  the 
flightless  Wood  Hens.  Here,  too,  lives  the  flightless 
Gallinule,  Notornis^  and  in  this  family  of  Gallinules, 
birds  not  unlike  Coots,  there  are  at  least  four  flightless 
species  inhabiting  islands — one  in  the  Moluccas,  one  in 
Samoa,  one  on  Tristan  d'Acunha,  and  one  on  Gough 
Island.  The  last  two  islands  are  about  fifteen  hundred 
miles  from  Cape  Good  Hope,  and  have  evidently  never 
been  connected  with  a  continent.  There  seems  little 
reason  to  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  ancestors  of  the 
Gallinules  now  inhabiting  these  islands  reached  them 
by  the  use  of  their  wings,  and  that  these  organs  have 
since  become  too  small  and  weak  to  support  their  owners 
in  the  air.  Other  cases  might  be  cited ;  for  instance, 
the  Dodo  of  Mauritius  among  Pigeons,  and  the  Kakapo 
(Stringops)  of  New  Zealand  among  Parrots ;  but  if  the 
illustrations  already  given  have  not  convinced  you  that 
disuse  of  the  wings  may  result  in  loss  of  flight,  let 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING.  23 

me  take  you  finally  to  the  poultry  yard,  where  in  the 
waddling  Duck  you  will  see  an  undeniable  instance  of 
degeneration. 

As  the  seat  of  sexual  characters  the  wing  is  some- 
times most  singularly  developed  or  adorned.  The  males 
of  the  Argus  Pheasant  and  Pennant-winged  Nightjar 
have  certain  feathers  enormously  lengthened ;  the  Stand- 
ard-bearer has  white  plumes  growing  from  the  wing ;  and 
there  are  many  other  cases  in  which  the  wing  presents  sex- 
ual characters,  not  alone  through  display,  but  also  by 
use  as  a  musical  organ.  I  do  not  refer  to  the  whistling 
sound  made  by  the  wings  of  flying  Doves  or  Ducks,  or 
the  humming  of  Hummingbirds,  but  to  sounds  volun- 
tarily produced  by  birds,  and  evidently  designed  to  an- 
swer the  purpose  of  song. 

A  simple  form  of  this  kind  of  "  music  "  is  shown  by 
the  cock  in  clapping  his  wings  before  crowing,  in  the 
"  drumming  "  of  Grouse,  or  in  the  "  booming  "  of  Night- 
hawks,  as  with  wings  set  they  dive  from  a  height  earth- 
ward. The  male  Cassique  (Ostinops)  of  South  America, 
after  giving  voice  to  notes  which  sound  like  those  pro- 
duced by  chafing  trees  in  a  gale,  leans  far  forward, 
spreads  and  raises  his  large  orange  and  black  tail,  then 
vigorously  claps  his  wings  together  over  his  back,  mak- 
ing a  noise  which  so  resembles  the  cracking  of  branches 
that  one  imagines  the  birds  learned  this  singular  per- 
formance during  a  gale. 

The  birds  mentioned  thus  far  have  no  especial  wing 
structure  beyond  rather  stiffened  feathers ;  but  in  the 
Woodcock,  some  Paradise-birds  and  Flycatchers,  Guans, 
Pipras,  and  other  tropical  birds,  certain  wing-feathers 
are  singularly  modified  as  musical  instruments.  Some- 
times the  outer  primaries  are  so  narrowed  that  little  but 
the  shaft  or  midrib  is  left,  as  in  both  sexes  of  the  Wood- 
cock, when  the  rapid  wing-strokes  are  accompanied  by  a 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  WING. 


high,  whistling  sound.  In  other  cases  the  shafts  of  the 
wing-feathers  may  be  much  enlarged  and  horny,  when 

the  bird  makes  a  sin- 
gular snapping  sound 
in  flight. 

If  you  recall  the 
supplicating  manner  of 
a  young  bird  as  with 

FIG.   9.— Wing  of  Woodcock,  showing  three          '    ,      ° 

outer    attenuate    feathers.      (*/,    natural    gently  fluttering  WingS 

it  begs  for  food,  you 

will  recognize  one  of  several  ways  in  which  the  wings 
may  express  emotion.  Birds  also  threaten  with  their 
wings,  as  any  hen  with  chicks  will  testify,  and  from  this 


FIG.  10. — Jacana,  showing  spur  on  wing  (natural  size)  and  elongated  toes  (Y3 
natural  size). 

gesture  to  the  actual  delivery  of  a  blow  is  but  a  step. 
Swans,  Pigeons,  and  Chickens  can  deal  forcible  blows 
with  their  wings.  Screamers,  Lapwings,  and  Jacanas 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  TAIL.  25 

have  formidable  spurs  on  their  wings,  which  they  are 
supposed  to  use  in  combat. 

The  Tail. — Except  when  sexually  developed,  the 
shape  of  the  tail  is  largely  governed  by  the  character 
of  its  owner's  flight.  Male  Lyre-birds,  Pheasants,  Fowls, 
Hummingbirds,  and  many  others  furnish  well-marked 
instances  of  the  tail  as  a  sexual  character.  Indeed,  as 
the  least  important  to  the  bird  of  the  four  external 
organs  we  are  speaking  of,  the  tail  is  more  often  sexually 
modified  than  any  of  the  other  three. 

The  main  office  of  the  tail,  however,  is  mechanical,  to 
act  as  a  rudder  in  flight  and  a  "  balancer  "  when  perch- 
ing. Short-tailed  birds  generally  fly  in  a  straight  course, 
and  can  not  make  sharp  turns,  while  long-tailed  birds  can 
pursue  a  most  erratic  course,  with  marvelous  ease  and 
grace.  The  Grebes  are  practically  tailless,  and  their 
flight  is  comparatively  direct,  but  the  Swallow-tailed 
Kite,  with  a  tail  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  can  dash  to 
right  or  left  at  the  most  abrupt  angle. 

Among  tree-creeping  birds,  which  always  climb  up- 
ward, the  tail  is  used  as  a  brace  or  prop.  This  character,  as 
has  been  said,  is  possessed  by  all  Woodpeckers,  by  the  quite 
different  Woodhewers  of  South  America,  the  Brown  Creep- 
ers of  temperate  regions,  and  other  birds  (see  Figs.  3  and  4). 

The  two  middle  feathers  in  the  tail  of  the  Motmot, 
of  the  American  tropics,  end  in  a  racket-shaped  disk,  the 
result  of  a  unique  habit.  Similarly  shaped  feathers  are 
found  in  the  tails  of  some  Hummingbirds  and  Old  World 
Kingfishers,  but  in  the  Motmot  this  peculiar  shape  is  due 
to  a  self-inflicted  mutilation.  The  newly  grown  feathers, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  lack  the  terminal 
disk,  but  as  soon  as  they  are  grown,  the  birds  begin  to 
pick  at  the  barbs,  and  in  a  short  time  the  shaft  is  de- 
nuded, in  some  species  for  the  space  of  an  inch,  in  others 
for  as  much  as  two  inches. 


26  FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  TAIL. 

This  singular  habit  is  practiced  by  numerous  species 
of  Motmots,  ranging  from  Mexico  to  Brazil.  It  is  there- 
fore of  undoubted  age,  and  we  can  only  speculate  upon 
its  use  and  origin.  Young  birds  from  the  nest,  reared 


FIG.  11. — Central  tail-feathers  of  Motmot  (Momotus  subrufescens),  showing 
newly  grown  feathers  (at  the  left)  and  results  of  self-inflicted  mutilation. 

in  confinement  where  they  were  isolated  from  others  of 
their  kind,  trimmed  their  tail-feathers  soon  after  they 
were  grown.* 

The  habit,  therefore,  is  inherited,  but  the  mutilation, 
although  it  has  doubtless  been  practiced  for  countless 
generations,  has  not  become  inherent,  unless  we  consider 
the  constriction  in  the  vane  of  the  feather  at  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  trimmed  an  indication  of  inheritance. 

The  Motmot  gesticulates  with  its  tail  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  swinging  it  from  side  to  side,  so  that  it  suggests 
the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  or  sweeping  it  about  in  circles 
with  a  movement  which  reminds  one  of  a  bandmaster 
nourishing  his  baton.  We  shall  find  in  other  species, 
also,  that  the  tail,  more  than  any  other  organ,  is  used  to 
express  emotion.  Recall  its  twitching  and  wagging ;  how 
it  is  nervously  spread  or  "jetted,"  showing  the  white 

*  See  Cherrie,  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  vol.  ix,  1892,  p.  322. 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  FEET. 


outer  feathers,  as  in  the  Meadowlark.  The  tail  may 
also  be  expressive  of  disposition.  Compare  the  drooped 
tail  of  a  pensive  Flycatcher  with  the  uptilted  member  of 
an  inquisitive  Wren. 

But  it  is  when  displaying  its  beauties  that  a  bird 
speaks  most  eloquently  with  its  tail.  Can  anything  ex- 
ceed the  pompous  pride  of  a  Turkey  cock  strutting  in 
swollen  glory,  with  tail  stiffly  spread  ?  The  Peacock 
erects  his  tail  in  a  similar  manner,  but  it  is  entirely  con- 
cealed  by  the  train  of  gorgeous  feathers  which  it  par- 
tially supports. 

The  Feet. — As  the  feet  share  with  the  wings  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  locomotion,  there  is  often  a  close  rela- 
tion between  these  organs.  For  example,  short-winged 
terrestrial  species  like  Quails,  Grouse,  and  Rails  have  well- 
developed  feet,  but  such  aerial  creatures  as  Swifts  and 
Swallows  have  exceedingly  small  feet  (see  Figs.  3  and  4). 
The  aquatic  Grebes  and  Divers  are  practically  helpless  on 
land,  but  the  Ostrich  can  outrun  the  horse ;  while  in  the 
perching  birds  the  foot  is  so  specialized  that  by  the  auto- 


Fio.  12.— Lobed  foot  of  a  Coot,  a 
swimming  bird  of  the  Eail 
family.  (^3  natural  size.) 


FIG.  13.— Lobed  foot  of  a  Phala- 
roj)e,  a  swimming  bird  of  the 
Snipe  family.  (Natural  size.) 


matic  action  of  certain  tendons  the  birds  are  locked  to 
their  perches  while  sleeping.  A  webbed  foot  implies  abil- 
ity to  swim,  and  we  find  this  character  present  in  all  the 


FORM  AND  HABIT:  THE  FEET. 


water-loving  Divers,  Auks,  Gulls,  Cormorants,  and  Ducks. 
In  the  wading  Herons  and  marsh-inhabiting  Rails  and 
Gallinules  the  web  is  absent,  but  it  reappears  in  the  form 
of  lobes  on  the  toes  of  the  aquatic  Coots  of  the  same 
family. 

Some  shore-inhabiting  Snipe  have  the  bases  of  the 
toes  united  by  webs,  but  the  Phalaropes,  of  two  species, 
have  lobed  toes  not  unlike  those  of  the  Coots,  and  are 
true  swimming  Snipe  living  on  the  sea  for  long  periods. 

Length  of  foot  is  largely  dependent  upon  length  of 
neck.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  Herons,  and  is  particu- 
larly well  shown  by  the 
long-necked  Flamingo, 
which  has  a  foot  twelve 
inches  long.  Its  toes 
are  webbed,  and  it  can 
wade  in  deep  water  and 
search  for  food  on  the 
bottom  by  immersing 
its  long  neck  and  its 
head. 

In  the  tropical  Ja- 
canas  the  toes  and  toe- 
nails  are  much  length- 
ened, enabling  the  bird 
to  pass  over  the  water 
on  aquatic  plants.  I 
have  seen  these  birds 
walking  on  small  lily 
leaves,  which  sank  be- 
neath their  weight,  giv- 
ing one  the  impression 
that  they  were  walking  on  the  water  (see  Fig.  10). 

Many  ground -feeding  birds  use  the  feet  in  scratching 
for  food  ;  Chickens  are  familiar  examples.  Towhees  and 


FIG.  14. — Flamingo,  showing  relative  length 
of  legs  and  neck   in   a  wading   ' 
(Much  reduced.) 


bird. 


FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  FEET.  29 

Sparrows  use  both  feet  in  searching  for  food,  jumping 
quickly  backward  and  throwing  the  leaves  behind  them. 
Parrots  use  their  foot  as  a  hand.  Some  Hawks  carry 
nesting  material  in  it,  and  all  birds  of 
prey  strike  their  quarry  with  their 
strongly  curved  claws,  which  are  then 
used  to  carry,  or  hold  it  while  it  is 
being  torn  by  the  bill.  The  foot  of 
the  Fish  Hawk  is  a  magnificent  organ. 
The  nails  are  strong  and  well  curved  ; 
the  inner  surface  of  the  toes  is  set  with 
sharp,  horny  spikes,  and  the  outer  toe 
is  partly  reversible,  so  that  the  bird 
grasps  its  slippery  prey  from  four  dif- 
ferent points.  Fl£  is.-Foot  of  Fish 

Hawk,  showing  large 

As  a  weapon  the  foot  is  especially      claws,  and  spicuies  on 

„      ,.  _    A  .  .     f  under  surface  of  toes. 

effective,  the  use  of  spurs  being  too      (»/,  natural  size.) 
well  known  to  require  comment.     Os- 
triches kick  with  their  feet,  and  can,  it  is  said,  deliver  a 
blow  powerful  enough  to  fell  a  man. 

But  by  far  the  best  instance  of  modification  in  the 
structure  of  the  feet  is  furnished  by  Grouse.     It  is  an 


FIG.  16. — Naked  toes  of  Ruffed  Grouse  in  summer;  fringed  toes  of  Ruffed 
Grouse  in  winter.     (2/3  natural  size.) 

unusual  case  of  seasonal  adaptation  in  form.     During  the 
summer  the  toes  of  Grouse  are  bare  and  slender,  but  as 


30  FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  BILL. 

these  birds  are  largely  ground-haunters,  and  most  of  them 
inhabit  regions  where  the  snowfall  is  heavy,  the  toes  in 
winter  acquire  a  comblike  fringe  on  either  side.  Practi- 
cally, therefore,  Grouse  don  snowshoes  in  the  fall,  and 
wear  them  until  the  following  spring. 

The  .Bill. — Of  the  four  organs  we  are  considering, 
the  bill  is  beyond  question  the  most  important.  "We 
have  seen  that  a  bird  may  be  wingless  and  practically 
tailless,  and  may  almost  lose  the  use  of  its  feet;  but 
from  the  moment  the  bill  breaks  the  eggshell  and 
liberates  the  chick,  the  bird's  life  is  dependent  upon  its 
services.  The  variety  of  offices  performed  by  the  bill, 
and  the  correspondingly  numerous  forms  it  assumes,  are, 
doubtless,  without  parallel  in  the  animal  world. 

The  special  modification  of  the  fore  limbs  as  flight- 
organs  deprives  birds  of  their  use  for  other  important 
services,  and  consequently  we  have  a  biped  which,  so  far 
as  their  assistance  goes,  is  without  arms  or  hands.  As  a 
result,  the  duties  which  would  naturally  fall  to  these 
members  are  performed  by  the  bill,  whose  chief  office, 
therefore,  is  that  of  a  hand. 

Occasionally  it  is  sexually  adorned,  as  in  the  Puffins, 
several  Auks,  Ducks,  and  the  "White  Pelicans,  which, 
during  the  nesting  season,  have  some  special  plate,  knob, 
or  color  on  the  bill.  With  the  Woodpeckers  it  is  a 
musical  instrument — the  drumstick  with  which  they  beat 
a  tattoo  on  some  resounding  limb.  Owls  and  some  other 
birds,  when  angry  or  frightened,  snap  their  mandibles 
together  like  castanets.  But  it  is  as  a  hand  that  the 
bill  gives  best  evidence  of  adaptation  to  or  by  habit. 
Among  families  in  which  the  wings,  tail,  and  feet  are 
essentially  alike  in  form,  the  bill  may  present  great  vari- 
ation— proof  apparently  of  its  response  to  the  demands 
made  upon  it. 

All  birds  use  it  as  a  comb  and  brush  with  which  to 


FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  BILL.  31 

perform  their  toilet,  and,  pressing  a  drop  of  oil  from  the 
gland  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  they  dress  their  feathers 
with  their  bill.  Parrots  use  the  bill  in  climbing,  and 
its  hawklike  shape  in  these  birds  is  an  unusual  instance 
of  similarity  in  structure  accompanying  different  habits. 

Birds  which  do  not  strike  with  their  feet  may  use 
the  bill  as  a  weapon,  but  the  manner  in  which  it  is  em- 
ployed corresponds  so  closely  with  the  method  by  which 
a  bird  secures  its  food,  that  as  a  weapon  the  bill  pre- 
sents no  special  modifications.  In  constructing  the  nest 
the  bill  may  be  used  as  a  trowel,  an  auger,  a  needle,  a 
chisel,  and  as  several  other  tools. 

But  as  a  hand  the  bill's  most  important  office  is  that 
of  procuring  food ;  and  wonderful  indeed  are  the  forms 
it  assumes  to  supply  the  appetites  of  birds  who  may 
require  a  drop  of  nectar  or  a  tiny  insect  from  the  heart 
of  a  flower,  a  snake  from  the  marshes,  a  clam  or  mussel 
from  the  ocean's  beach,  or  a  fish  from  its  waters.  The 
bill,  therefore,  becomes  a  forceps,  lever,  chisel,  hook, 
hammer,  awl,  probe,  spoon,  spear,  sieve,  net,  and  knife- 
in  short,  there  is  almost  no  limit  to  its  shape  and  uses. 

With  Hummingbirds  the  shape  of  the  bill  is  appar- 
ently related  to  the  flowers  from  which  the  bird  most 
frequently  procures  its  food.  It  ranges  in  length  from 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  the 
Small-billed  Hummer  (Micro- 
rhynchus)  to  five  inches  in 
the  Siphon- bill  (Docimastes), 
which  has  a  bill  longer  than  ., 

.,      ,      ,  FIG.  17.—  Decurved  bill  of  Sickle- 

itS    body,  and   IS    Said    to  feed  bill  Hummingbird.      (Natural 

from  the  long-tubed  trumpet 

flowers.  The  Avocet  Hummer  (Avocettula)  has  a  bill 
curved  slightly  upward,  but  in  the  Sickle-billed  Hummer 
(Eutoxeres)  it  is  curved  downward  to  form  half  a  circle, 
and  the  bird  feeds  on  flowers  having  a  similarly  curved 


32 


FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  BILL. 


corolla.  In  the  Tooth-billed  Hummer  (Androdon)  both 
mandibles  are  finely  serrate  at  the  end,  the  upper  one 
being  also  hooked,  and  the  bird  feeds  on  insects  which  it 
captures  on  the  surface  of  leaves  and  other  places. 

Among  the  Woodhewers  (Dendrocolaptidw)  of  South 
America  there  is  fully  as  much  variability,  which  reflects 

equally  variable  feeding 
habits.  Some  species  have 
short,  stout,  straight  bills, 
others  exceedingly  long, 
slender,  curved  ones. 

FIG.  18.— Serrate  bill  of  Merganser,  a  fish-    Mergansers.  Gannets,  An- 
eating  bird.     (i/a  natural  size.)  ,  . 

hingas,    and    other  birds 

that  catch  fish  by  pursuing  them  under  water,  have 
sharply  serrate  mandibles,  which  aid  them  in  holding 
their  slippery  prey. 

Some  shore  birds  (Limicolce)  use  the  bill  as  a  probe, 


FIG.  19. — Probelike  bill  of  Woodcock,  showing  extent  to  which  upper  mandi- 
ble can  be  moved.     (2/3  natural  size.) 

when  it  may  be  six  inches  in  length  and  straight,   or 
curved  downward.      It  has  recently  been  learned  that 


FIG.  20. — Recurved  bill  of  Avocet.     (2/3  natural  size.) 

several  of  these  probing  Snipe,  notably  the  Woodcock, 
have  the  power  of  moving  the  end  of  the  upper  mandi- 


FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  BILL. 


33 


ble,  which  better  enables  them  to  grasp  objects  while 
probing.  In  the  Avocet  the  bill  is  curved  upward,  and  the 
bird  swings  it  from  side  to  side,  scraping  the  bottom  in 
its  search  for  food.  The  New 
Zealand  Wrybill  has  its  bill 
turned  to  the  right  for  the  ter- 
minal third,  and  the  bird  uses 
it  as  a  crooked  probe  to  push 
under  stones  in  hunting  for  its 
prey.  The  Siberian  Spoonbill  Fl°- 
Sandpiper  has  a  most  singular 
bill,  which  is  much  enlarged  at  the  end,  suggesting  a 
flat-ended  forceps.  The  Roseate  Spoonbill,  an  entirely 
different  bird,  has  a  somewhat  similarly  shaped  bill,  a 
striking  instance  of  the  occurrence  of  the  same  form  in 
families  which  are  not  closely  related. 

But  probably  the  most  remarkable  instance  of  relation 


FIG.  22. — Curved  bill  of  female,  straight  bill  of  male  Huia-bird.     (ya  natural 

size.) 

between  the  form  of  the  bill  and  feeding  habits  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Huia-bird  of  New  Zealand.     The  male  of 
this  species  has  a  comparatively  short,  straight  bill,  while 
4 


34  FORM  AND  HABIT:   THE  BILL. 

that  of  the  female  is  long  and  curvecf.  The  birds  feed 
on  larvae,  which  they  find  in  dead  wood.  The  male 
hammers  and  chisels  away  the  wood  very  much  as  Wood- 
peckers do,  while  the  female  uses  her  bill  as  a  probe. 
We  have,  therefore,  the  singular  case  of  two  forms  of 
the  bill  arising  in  the  same  species  as  a  result  of  or  caus- 
ing a  corresponding  difference  in  habit. 


CHAPTER  III. 

COLORS  OF  BIRDS.* 

THE  almost  endless  range  of  variation  in  the  colors 
and  pattern  of  coloration  of  birds'  plumage  has  attracted 
the  attention  of  many  philosophic  naturalists.  Why,  for 
example,  should  birds  from  some  regions  always  be 
darker  than  those  from  other  regions ;  why  should 
ground-inhabiting  birds  generally  wear  a  dull  or  neutral 
tinted  costume ;  and  why  should  the  male,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, be  brighter  than  the  female  ? 

For  answer  I  will  outline  some  of  the  leading  facts 
and  theories  in  connection  with  this  interesting  subject. 
In  the  first  place,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to 
have  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  individual  change  in 
color,  that  is,  the  various  phases  of  color,  which  a  bird 
may  pass  through  during  different  periods  of  its  life.f 


*  Consult  Poulton,  Colors  of  Animals  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.).  Gadow, 
in  Newton's  Dictionary  of  Birds— articles,  Color  and  Feathers.  Bed- 
dard,  Animal  Coloration  (Macmillan  Co.).  Keeler,  Evolution  of  the 
Colors  of  North  American  Land  Birds ;  occasional  papers,  California 
Academy  of  Sciences  (San  Francisco),  iii,  1893.  Also  Allen,  reviews 
of  last  two  works,  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  x,  1893,  pp.  189-199, 
373-380.  Allen,  Alleged  Changes  of  Color  in  the  Feathers  of  Birds 
without  Molting  ;  Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, New  York  city,  viii,  1896,  pp.  13-44.  Chadbourne,  Individual 
Dichromatism  in  the  Screech  Owl ;  The  Auk,  xiii,  1896,  pp.  321-325, 
and  xiv,  1897,  pp.  33-39,  one  plate. 

f  The  term  color,  as  here  used,  means  practically  the  plumage  or 
dress  of  birds. 

35 


36  COLOR  AND  AGE. 

Color  and  Age. — All  birds  have  a  special  nestling 
plumage.  With  those  that  run  or  swim  at  birth,  such 
as  Grouse,  Snipe,  and  Ducks,  this  is  a  full  suit  of  down, 
which  may  be  worn  for  several  weeks.  With  those 
birds  which  are  helpless  when  hatched — for  instance, 
Robins,  Sparrows,  and  Orioles — this  downy  covering  is 
so  scanty  that  they  are  practically  naked.  This  birth 
dress  is  followed  by  a  new  growth,  known  as  the  "  first 
plumage."  Down-covered  birds  do  not  acquire  this  for 
some  time,  but  with  those  birds  that  are  born  nearly 
naked  it  begins  to  grow  soon  after  they  are  hatched,  and 
is  almost  complete  when  they  leave  the  nest.  The  first 
plumage  is  often  unlike  that  of  either  parent;  for  ex- 
ample, the  spotted  plumage  of  the  Robin.  It  is  worn  for 
several  months  by  some  species — certain  Snipe  and  others 
—but  with  most  land  birds  it  is  soon  exchanged  for  the 
costume  they  will  wear  through  the  winter,  usually 
termed  the  "immature  plumage."  This  may  resemble 
that  of  either  parent  respectively — that  is,  immature 
males  may  be  like  adult  males  and  immature  females  like 
adult  females,  as  with  the  Bob-white  and  Cardinal  Gros- 
beak ;  or  the  immature  birds  of  both  sexes  may  resemble 
the  adult  female,  as  with  the  Hummingbird  and  Bobolink. 
Again,  the  immature  birds  of  both  sexes  may  be  unlike 
either  of  the  adults,  as  with  the  Eagle  and  most  Hawks ; 
or  the  immature  female  may  resemble  the  adult  female, 
while  the  immature  male  is  unlike  either  parent,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  and  Scarlet  Tanager. 
When  both  parents  are  alike,  the  young  generally  resem- 
ble them,  and  this  happens  among  most  of  our  land  birds ; 
for  example,  the  Flycatchers,  Crows  and  Jays,  many 
Sparrows,  Yireos,  Wrens,  and  Thrushes. 

Immature  birds,  differing  from  the  adults,  may  ac- 
quire the  adult  plumage  the  next  spring,  as  with  the 
Bobolink,  or  they  may  then  don  a  second  or  transition 


COLOR  AND  SEASON.  37 

plumage,  and  not  assume  the  dress  of  maturity  until  the 
second  or  even  the  third  spring,  which  is  the  case  with 
the  Orchard  Oriole. 

Color  and  Season. — Quite  apart  from  the  changes  in 
color  due  to  age,  a  bird  may  throughout  its  life  change 
costumes  with  the  seasons.  Thus,  the  male  Bobolink 
after  the  nesting  season,  exchanges  his  black,  white,  and 
buff  nuptial  suit  for  a  sparrowlike  dress  resembling  that 
of  his  mate.  The  Scarlet  Tanager  sheds  his  gay  body 
plumage  and  puts  on  the  olive-green  colors  of  the  fe- 
male, without  changing,  however,  the  color  of  his  black 
wings  and  tail.  The  following  spring  both  birds  resume 
the  more  conspicuous  coats.  A  more  or  less  similar 
change  takes  place  among  many  birds  in  which  the  male 
is  brighter  than  the  female,  but,  among  land  birds,  when 
the  adults  of  both  sexes  are  alike,  there  is  little  or  no 
seasonal  change  in  color. 

The  Molt* — These  changes  in  plumage,  as  far  as  they 
are  understood,  are  accomplished  by  the  molt,  frequently 
followed  by  a  wearing  off  of  the  differently  colored  ter- 
minal fringe  which  is  found  on  the  new  feathers  of  some 
birds.  It  has  been  stated  that  birds  change  color  without 
changing  their  plumage,  either  by  a  chemical  alteration 
in  the  pigment  of  the  feathers  resulting  in  a  new  color, 
or  by  the  actual  gain  of  new  pigment  from  the  body  ;  but 
I  know  of  no  instance  in  which  this  has  been  proved,  nor 
do  I  believe  that  the  latter  change  is  possible.  The  whole 
subject  offers  an  excellent  field  for  observation  and  ex- 
periment. 

There  is  a  great  and  as  yet  but  little  understood 
variation  in  the  molting  of  birds.  Not  only  may  closely 

*  See  Stone,  The  Molting  of  Birds,  with  Special  Reference  to  the 
Plumages  of  the  Smaller  Land  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America,  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Science,  1896,  pp. 
108-167,  two  plates. 


38 


THE  MOLT. 


related  species  molt  differently,  but  the  manner  and  time 
of  molting  among  individuals  of  the  same  species  may 
vary  according  to  their  sex,  age,  and  physical  condition. 

At  the  close  of  the  nesting  season  all  birds  renew 
their  entire  plumage  by  molting.  The  following  spring, 
before  the  nesting  season,  most  birds  molt  their  body 
feathers,  retaining  those  of  the  wing  and  tail.  A  few, 
however,  like  the  Bobolink,  have  a  complete  molt  at 
this  season  also.  Others  molt  only  a  few  of  the  body 
feathers,  while  some  birds  are  adorned  at  this  season 
with  special  nuptial  plumes. 

The  beautiful  aigrette  plumes  of  the  Heron  consti- 
tute a  nuptial  dress  of  this  kind.  It  is  for  these  plumes 
that  the  birds  have  been  slaughtered  in  such  enormous 
numbers  that  if  the  demand  continues  they  will  speedily 
become  extinct. 

Some  birds,  whose  fall  plumage  is  edged  with  a  dif- 
ferently colored  tip  to  each  feather,  do  not  molt  in  the 
spring,  but  acquire  their  wedding  dress  by  the  slow  wear- 
ing off  of  the  fringes  to  the  feathers  which  have  dis- 


October. 


January. 


March. 


June. 


FIG.  23. — Feathers  from  back  of  Snowflake,  showing  seasonal  changes  in  form 
and  color  due  to  wearing  off  of  tips.     (Natural  size.) 

guised  them  during  the  winter.  The  Snowflake,  for 
instance,  changes  from  brown  and  brownish  white  to 
pure  black  and  white  by  losing  the  brown  tips  which 
have  concealed  the  black  or  white  bases  of  his  feathers. 


COLOR  AND  FOOD.  39 

Much  remains  to  be  learned  on  this  subject  of  the 
molt,  and,  although  confinement  is  known  to  affect  its 
manner  and  extent,  I  believe  intelligent  observation  of 
caged  birds  will  lead  to  really  valuable  results. 

Color  and  Food. — In  some  instances  it  is  known  that 
a  bird's  color  is  affected  by  the  nature  of  its  food.  It  is 
a  common  practice  among  bird  fanciers  to  alter  the  color 
of  Canaries  from  yellow  to  orange-red  by  feeding  them 
on  red  pepper.  This  food,  however,  is  said  to  have  no 
effect  upon  adult  birds,  but  must  be  fed  to  nestlings.  Sau- 
ermann's  experiments,  as  quoted  by  Beddard,  show  that 
the  red  color  is  not  caused  by  the  capsicin  or  red  pig- 
ment in  the  pepper,  but  by  a  fatty  substance  termed 
triolein.  Fed  to  white  fowls,  their  breasts  became  red, 
while  the  rest  of  the  plumage  remained  unchanged.  It 
is  also  stated  that  dealers  alter  the  color  of  green  Parrots 
to  yellow  by  feeding  them  on  the  fat  of  certain  fishes. 

Flamingoes  and  Scarlet  Ibises  when  kept  in  captivity 
lose  their  bright  red  colors  and  become  dingy  pink  or 
even  soiled  white,  and  some  animal  dealers  have  acquired 
a  reputation  for  restoring  their  natural  tints  by  supplying 
them  with  food  the  nature  of  which  is  kept  a  secret. 

Our  Purple  Finch  turns  to  yellow  in  captivity.  An 
adult  male  now  in  my  possession  is  undergoing  his  second 
molt  since  capture  a  year  ago,  and  it  will  evidently  leave 
him  without  a  single  red  feather.  Other  wild  birds 
when  caged  are  known  to  assume  more  or  less  abnormal 
plumages,  due,  it  is  supposed,  to  change  in  food.  There 
is,  however,  very  little  exact  information  on  this  subject, 
and  it  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  patient  in- 
vestigator. 

Color  cmd  Climate* — Color  is  a  much  more  variable 
character  than  form.  There  are  but  few  instances  in 

*  Read  Allen,  Bulletin  of  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  (Cam- 
bridge, Mass.),  vol.  ii,  No.  3,  1871,  pp.  186-250. 


40  COLOR  AND  CLIMATE. 

which  we  can  show  the  cause  of  a  given  structure  ;  but 
color  responds  more  quickly  to  the  influence  of  sur- 
roundings, and  in  many  cases  we  can  point  to  cause  and 
effect  with  some  certainty. 

This  is  best  illustrated  by  the  relation  between  climate 
and  color.  Briefly,  it  has  been  found  that  birds  are 
darkest  in  humid  regions  and  palest  in  arid  regions. 

This  at  first  thought  seems  of  small  moment,  but  in 
reality  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  facts  established 
by  ornithologists.  It  is  an  undeniable  demonstration  of 
"  evolution  by  environment " — that  is,  the  bird's  color  is 
in  part  due  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  lives. 

For  example,  our  common  Song  Sparrow,  which  in- 
habits the  greater  part  of  North  America,  varies  so 
greatly  in  color  in  different  parts  of  its  range  that  no 
less  than  eleven  subspecies  or  geographical  races  are 
known  to  ornithologists.  The  extremes  are  found  in  the 
arid  deserts  of  Arizona,  where  the  annual  rainfall  aver- 
ages eight  inches,  and  on  the  humid  Pacific  coast  from 
Washington  to  Alaska,  where  the  annual  rainfall  averages 
about  eighty  inches. 

The  Arizona  Song  Sparrows  are  pale,  sandy  colored 
birds,  while  those  from  Alaska  are  dark,  sooty  brown. 
One  would  imagine  them  to  be  different  species ;  but 
unlike  as  are  these  extremes,  they,  with  the  other  nine 
races  in  this  group,  are  found  to  intergrade  in  those  re- 
gions where  the  climatic  conditions  themselves  undergo 
a  change.  That  is,  as  we  pass  from  an  arid  into  a  humid 
region,  the  birds  gradually  get  darker  as  the  average 
rainfall  increases. 

If  now  we  study  other  birds  living  in  these  regions, 
we  find  that  many  of  them,  especially  the  resident  species, 
are  similarly  affected  by  the  prevailing  climatic  influ- 
ences— that  is,  many  Arizona  birds  are  bleached  and 
faded  in  appearance,  while  all  the  thirty  odd  Northwest 


COLOR  AND  HAUNT  AND  HABIT.  41 

Pacific  coast  races  are  darker  or  more  heavily  streaked 
or  barred  than  any  of  their  congeners.  It  is  of  impor- 
tance to  observe  that  these  differences  are  shown  by 
young  birds  in  fresh  plumage — evidence  that  the  charac- 
ters acquired  through  climate  have  been  inherited. 

There  are  many  similar  cases,  but  some  species  seem 
more  easily  affected  than  others,  and  throughout  their 
ranges  are  markedly  affected  by  the  conditions  under 
which  they  live.  Thus  we  have  nine  races  of  Screech 
Owl,  eleven  of  Horned  Lark,  six  of  Junco,  etc. 

These  races,  or  subspecies,  are  species  in  process  of 
formation.  The  extremes  are  still  connected  by  inter- 
mediate or  natural  links,  but  if,  through  any  cause,  these 
intermediates  should  disappear,  the  extremes  would  then 
be  left  as  distinct  species. 

Color  and  Haunt  and  Habit. — The  relation  of  a 
bird's  color  to  its  haunts  and  habits  is  a  complex  sub- 
ject. Any  attempt  at  its  explanation  should  be  based  on 
so  exact  a  knowledge  of  tlie facts  in  the  case,  that  I  can  not 
too  strongly  emphasize  here  the  necessity  for  observations 
in  the  field.  Only  a  close  study  of  the  living  bird  will 
justify  us  in  advancing  theories  to  account  for  its  coloration. 

Many  explanations  have  been  offered  to  account  for 
certain  colors  and  markings  of  birds,  but  often,  I  fear, 
without  adequate  knowledge  of  the  bird's  habits.  I 
shall  speak  of  only  four  classes  of  colors ;  they  are 
protective,  deceptive,  recognition,  and  sexual  colors. 

Protective  colors  render  a  bird  inconspicuous  in  order 
that  it  may  escape  its  enemies.  Deceptive  colors  render 
it  inconspicuous  in  order  that  it  may  more  easily  approach 
its  prey.  In  both  cases  the  bird  should  harmonize  in 
color  with  its  immediate  surroundings. 

A  survey  of  the  birds  of  the  world  shows  that  on  the 
whole  this  is  true.  Thus  almost  all  ground-inhabiting 
birds,  such  as  Snipe,  Plover,  Quail,  Grouse,  Sparrows, 


42  PROTECTIVE  COLORATION. 

are  generally  dull  brown  or  gray,  like  the  ground,  leaves, 
or  grasses  about  them,  while  tree-haunting  birds,  espe- 
cially those  that  live  in  the  foliage  or  feed  from  blossoms, 
are,  as  a  rule,  brightly  colored.  In  this  class  belong 
Hummingbirds,  Orioles,  the  gayer  -  plumaged  Finches, 
Tanagers,  Warblers,  and  many  others.  It  is  partly 
owing  to  this  fact  that  the  erroneous  idea  concerning 
the  brilliant  plumage  of  all  tropical  birds  has  become 
established.  The  rich  vegetation  of  the  tropics  furnishes 
a  home  to  a  far  greater  number  of  brightly  colored  birds 
than  are  found  in  temperate  regions ;  still,  they  are  not 
more  numerous  than  the  dull-colored  species  that  live  on 
the  tree  trunks,  in  the  undergrowth,  or  on  the  ground, 
where,  owing  to  the  nature  of  both  their  colors  and 
haunts,  they  are  likely  to  be  overlooked. 

Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  numerous  in- 
termediate groups,  most  of  which  conform  to  the  general 
law  of  protective  coloration.  There  are,  it  is  true,  excep- 
tions, but  every  close  student  of  bird-life  must  be  so  im- 
pressed with  the  dangers  to  which  birds  are  exposed,  that 
he  can  not  doubt  that  the  chief  object  of  color  is  usually 
for  its  wearer's  concealment. 

The  term  "  protective  coloration  "  has  lately  received 
fresh  significance  through  the  studies  of  Mr.  Abbott  H. 
Thayer.*  Mr.  Thayer  proves  conclusively  that  protect- 
ive coloration  lies  not  so  much  in  an  animal's  resem- 
blance in  color  to  its  surroundings  as  in  its  gradation  of 
color.  Thus  he  points  to  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  animals 
are  darker  above  than  below — that  is,  those  parts  receiv- 
ing the  most  light  are  darkest,  while  the  parts  receiving  the 
least  light  are  palest.  In  effect  it  follows  that  the  darkar 
upper  parts  are  brightened,  while  the  paler  under  parts  are 

*  See  his  papers  'on  The  Law  which  Underlies  Protective  Colora- 
tion, in  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  vol.  xiii,  pp.  124-129, 318-320,  eleven 


PROTECTIVE  COLORATION.          43 

darkened,  the  result  being  a  uniform  color,  with  an  ap- 
parent absence  of  shadow,  tending  to  render  the  object 
invisible. 

Mr.  Thayer  clearly  demonstrates  his  discovery  by 
using  several  decoys  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  Wood- 
cock's body.  These  he  places  about  six  inches  above  the 
ground  on  wire  uprights,  or  in  a  row  on  a  horizontal  rod. 
One  of  these  decoys  he  colors  uniformly,  above  and  be- 
low, to  resemble  the  earth  about  it,  or  he  may  even  give 
it  a  fine  coating  of  the  earth  itself.  The  upper  half  of 
the  other  decoys  is  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner, 
but  their  lower  half  is  graded  to  a  pure  white  on  the  me- 
dian line  below.  At  a  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  yards 
the  uniformly  colored  decoy  can  be  plainly  seen,  but 
those  which  are  white  below  are  entirely  invisible  until 
one  is  within  twenty  or  thirty  feet  of  them. 

After  definitely  locating  these  graded  decoys  the  ex- 
periment may  be  repeated  ;  but  the  result  will  always  be 
the  same.  As  one  slowly  retreats  from  them  they  will,  as 
by  magic,  seem  to  pass  out  of  existence,  while  the  one  which 
is  colored  alike  both  above  and  below  can  be  seen  distinctly. 

One  of  the  best  arguments  for  the  value  of  a  protect- 
ive coloration  is  the  fact  that  the  birds  themselves  are 
such  thorough  believers  in  it.  Here  we  have  the  reason 
why — in  sportsman's  parlance — game  birds  "lie  to  a  dog." 
When  there  is  sufficient  cover,  they  trust  to  their  protect- 
ive coloring  to  escape  detection,  and  take  wing  only  as 
a  last  resort ;  but  when  cover  is  scanty,  they  generally 
rise  far  out  of  gunshot.  Some  Snipe  and  Sparrows, 
however,  attempt  to  conceal  themselves  even  on  bare 
sand  or  worn  grass  by  squatting  close  to  the  earth,  with 
which  their  plumage  harmonizes  in  color. 

A  sitting  Woodcock  had  such  confidence  in  its  own 
invisibility  that  it  permitted  itself  to  be  stroked  without 
leaving  the  nest ;  but  when  a  light  snow  fell,  and  the 


44  DECEPTIVE  COLORATION. 

bird  became  a  conspicuous  dark  object  against  a  white 
background,  it  took  wing  on  the  first  suspicion  of  danger. 

I  could  mention  many  other  similar  instances,  but  the 
careful  observer  will  soon  find  them  included  in  his  own 
experience. 

Deceptive,  or,  as  Poulton  terms  it,  "  aggressive  "  col- 
oration is  perhaps  best  illustrated  by  common  Flycatchers 
(Tyrannidce).  Although  these  birds  live  in  and  about 
trees,  they  are,  as  a  rule,  quietly  attired  in  olive-green  or 
olive-gray,  and  are  quite  unlike  the  brilliantly  clad,fruit- 
eating  Tanagers,  Orioles,  Parrots,  and  other  birds  that 
may  be  found  near  them.  Insects  are  therefore  more 
likely  to  come  within  snapping  distance  than  if  these 
birds  were  conspicuously  colored.  In  the  same  manner 
we  may  explain  the  colors  of  Hawks,  which  are  never 
brightly  plumaged. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  arctic  animals  become 
white  on  the  approach  of  winter.  With  Ptarmigans 
this  is  doubtless  an  instance  of  protective  coloration,  but 
the  Snowy  Owl,  who  feeds  on  the  Ptarmigan,  may  be 
said  to  illustrate  deceptive  coloration. 

Recognition,  signaling,  or  directive  colors  have,  with 
more  or  less  reason,  been  made  to  include  many  different 
types  of  markings,  of  which  I  shall  mention  only  those 
that  are  conspicuously  shown  in  flight  or  by  some  move- 
ment. Such  are  the  white  outer  tail-feathers  of  Juncos, 
Meadowlarks,  Towhees,  and  many  other  birds,  and  cer- 
tain wing  and  rump  patches,  which  are  noticeable  only 
when  the  bird  is  on  the  wing.  Markings  of  this  kind  are 
supposed  to  aid  birds  in  recognizing  others  of  their  kind, 
their  special  use  being  to  keep  the  individuals  of  a  family 
or  flock  together,  so  that  when  one  starts  the  others  can 
readily  follow.  The  theory  is  open  to  objections,  but 
these  so-called  recognition  marks  are  so  often  found  among 
birds  that  they  doubtless  are  of  some  use,  though  their 


COLOR  AND  SEX. 


45 


exact  value  remains  to  be  determined  by  closer  obser- 
vation. 

Color  and  Sex* — It  is  not  possible  here  to  discuss  at 
length  the  vexed  question  of  sexual  coloration.  But,  as  a 
means  of  directing  observation,  I  present  a  synopsis  of 
the  principal  types  of  secondary  sexual  characters,  with 
some  of  the  theories  which  have  been  advanced  to  ac- 
count for  them. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  SECONDARY  SEXUAL  CHARACTERS 
OF  BIRDS. 


Size. 


Plumage. 


Of  the  body. 

Of  the  feet. 
Of  the  bill. 


Color. 


I.    STRUCTURAL. 

Male  larger  than  female  (usual). 
Female  larger  than  male  (rare). 

Male  brighter  than  female. 
Female  brighter  than  male  (rare), 
f  Assumption   of  plumes,  ruffs,  crests,  trains, 
etc. :  special  modification  of  wing  and  tail 
Form,  -j      feathers. 

|  a.  Worn  by  male  alone. 
[  b.  Worn  by  both  sexes. 

Sole  or  greater  development  in  male  of  brightly  col- 
ored bare  tracts  of  skin,  combs,  wattles,  caruncles, 
and  other  fleshy  or  horny  appendages. 
Sole  or  greater  development  in  male  of  spurs. 
Male  with   more   highly  colored  or  larger  bill   than 
female. 


Pursuit. 

Display. 
Battle. 

Music. 


Special 
habits. 


II.    FUNCTIONAL. 

By  male  when  similar  to  or  brighter  than  female. 

By  female  when  brighter  than  male. 

By  male  of  accessory  plumes  and  other  appendages. 

By  male  using  spurs,  wings,  bill,  etc. 

Vocal,  by  male  and,  rarely,  female. 

Mechanical,  by  male  and  sometimes  female. 

Dances,  mock  fights,  aerial  evolutions,  construction  of 
bowers,  decoration  of  playgrounds,   attitudinizing, 
-{       strutting,  etc. 
|  a.  By  male  before  the  female. 
[  b.  Among  the  males  alone. 


*  Read  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man  and  Selection  in  Relation  to 
Sex  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.).     Wallace,  Darwinism  (Macmillan  Co.). 


46  COLOR  AND  SEX. 

In  explanation  of  these  remarkable  differences  of  form 
and  habit,  we  have  first  Darwin's  theory  of  "  sexual  se- 
lection." This  is  based  upon  the  ardor  in  love,  the  cour- 
age and  rivalry  of  the  males,  and  also  upon  the  powers 
of  perception,  taste,  and  will  of  the  female. 

The  spurs  of  the  male,  for  example,  are  supposed 
to  have  been  developed  through  the  battles  of  the  males. 
At  first  a  mere  knob,  they  were  an  advantage  to  the  bird 
possessing  them,  enabling  him  to  defeat  his  rivals.  The 
successful  male  would  be  more  likely  to  have  offspring 
who  would  inherit  the  tendency  of  their  father  to  have 
spurs,  and  thus,  by  selection,  the  unspurred  cocks  would 
gradually  be  replaced  by  those  better  armed.  This  is 
known  as  the  "  law  of  battle." 

But  the  bright  colors  and  gay  plumes  of  the  cock 
have  originated,  under  this  theory,  through  the  taste  of 
the  female,  who,  it  is  assumed,  would  be  more  likely  to 
accept  the  attentions  of  a  bird  pleasing  in  her  eye  than 
one  who  was  less  strikingly  adorned.  This  has  been 
termed  by  Lloyd  Morgan  "  preferential  mating." 

Wallace  has  accepted  the  law  of  battle  as  an  effective 
agent  in  producing  certain  characters,  but  considers  it 
natural,  rather  than  sexual  selection,  and  he  denies  the 
existence  of  any  important  evidence  proving  female  selec- 
tion. He  therefore  attributes  many  secondary  sexual 
characters  to  a  surplus  of  vital  energy,  which,  because  of 
a  bird's  perfect  adaptation  to  the  conditions  of  its  exist- 
ence, can  expend  itself  in  the  production  of  bright  colors 
and  ornamental  plumes  without  injury  to  their  owners. 
That  is  to  say,  Wallace  ascribes  to  the  action  of  natural 
selection  any  secondary  sexual  character  which  is  of  prac- 
tical use  to  the  male  in  conflicts  with  a  rival,  but  denies 
the  female  any  part  in  the  matter  of  pairing.  Darwin, 
as  I  have  said,  attributes  to  the  female  an  aesthetic 
taste  which  renders  the  brilliant  colors  or  display  of  the 


COLOR  AND  SEX.  47 

male   an   attractive   sight,  influencing  her   choice  of  a 
mate. 

There  is  thus  a  practical  agreement  in  the  views  of 
these  naturalists  on  the  origin  of  those  sexual  characters 
which  may  be  classed  as  weapons,  and  this  opinion  is,  I 
believe,  generally  accepted.  But  the  question  of  female 
preference,  and  its  influence  on  the  development  of  bright 
colors  and  accessory  plumes,  still  lacks  confirmation. 
Here  is  an  opportunity  for  every  one  who  can  watch  wild 
birds  mating. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS.* 

To  the  field  student  the  season  of  migration  is  the 
most  interesting  of  the  year.  The  bird-life  of  a  vast 
area  then  passes  in  review  before  him.  Though  living 
in  a  temperate  region,  he  may  see  birds  whose  summer 
home  is  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  whose  winter  haunts  are 
in  the  tropics.  Who  can  tell  what  bird  he  may  find  in 
the  woods  he  has  been  exploring  for  years  ? 

The  comparative  regularity  with  which  birds  come 
and  go  gives  an  added  charm  to  the  study  of  migration. 
Their  journey  is  not  a  "  helter-skelter "  rushing  onward, 
but  is  like  the  well -governed  march  of  an  army.  We 
feel  a  sense  of  satisfaction  in  knowing  when  we  may  ex- 
pect to  greet  a  given  species,  and  a  secret  elation  if  we 
succeed  in  detecting  it  several  days  in  advance  of  other 
observers.  We  study  weather  charts,  and  try  to  foretell 
or  explain  those  great  flights  or  "  waves  "  of  birds  which 
are  so  closely  dependent  upon  meteorologic  conditions. 

*  Read  Allen,  Scribner's  Magazine,  vol.  xxii,  1881,  pp.  932-938, 
Bulletin  of  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club  (Cambridge,  Mass.),  vol.  v, 
1880,  pp.  151-154.  Scott,  ibid.,  vol.  vi,  1880,  pp.  97-100,  Brewster, 
Memoirs  of  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club,  No.  1,  pp.  22.  Cooke  and 
Merriam,  Bird  Migration  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  (Washington,  1888). 
Chapman,  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  vol.  v,  1888,  pp.  37-39 ;  vol.  xi, 
1894,  pp.  12-17.  Loomis,  ibid.,  vol.  ix,  1892,  pp.  28-39 ;  vol.  xi,  1894, 
pp.  26-39,  94-117.  Stone,  Birds  of  Eastern  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey,  pp.  15-28. 

48 


EXTENT   OF  MIGRATION.  49 

Extent  of  Migration. — The  extent  of  a  bird's  migra- 
tion is,  in  most  cases,  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  its 
food.  Birds  that  are  resident  in  one  place  throughout 
the  year  generally  change  their  fare  with  the  season, 
and  apparently  feed  with  equal  relish  on  seeds  or  insects. 
Those  that  are  dependent  upon  fruit  must  migrate  far 
enough  to  find  a  supply  of  berries,  while  the  insect-eaters 
are  obliged  to  travel  even  farther  south. 

Most  of  the  migratory  birds  of  our  Western  States 
pass  the  winter  in  Mexico.  Our  Eastern  Sparrows  and 
our  berry-eaters,  like  the  Robin  and  Bluebird,  winter 
from  the  Middle  States  to  the  Gulf  coast,  while  the  ma- 
jority of  our  purely  insectivorous  species  cross  to  Cuba 
and  winter  in  the  West  Indies,  or  continue  to  Central 
America  and  even  northern  South  America.  Snipe  and 
Plover  make  the  most  extended  migrations,  some  species 
breeding  within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  wintering  along 
the  coasts  of  Patagonia. 

Times  of  Migration. — Let  us  suppose  we  are  about 
to  observe  the  spring  migration  of  birds  at  Englewood, 
New  Jersey — a  few  miles  from  New  York  city.  Birds 
arrive  here  about  a  week  later  than  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
and  a  week  earlier  than  at  Boston. 

During  January  and  February,  while  watching  for 
some  rare  visitor  from  the  North,  we  shall  find  that  Tree 
Sparrows  and  Juncos  are  everywhere  common.  Less 
frequently  we  may  see  Shrikes,  Winter  Wrens,  Golden- 
crowned  Kinglets  and  Brown  Creepers,  and  rarely  Snow- 
flakes,  Red  Crossbills,  and  Redpolls  will  be  observed. 
These  birds  are  winter  visitants,  coming  to  us  from  the 
North  in  the  fall  and  leaving  in  March  and  April. 

Of  course,  in  addition  to  these  migratory  birds,  we 

shall  see  most  if  not  all  of  our  commoner  permanent 

residents,  or  the  birds  which  are  with  us  throughout  the 

year.      They  are  the   Bob-white,  Ruffed   Grouse,  Red- 

5 


50  TIMES  OF  MIGRATION. 

shouldered  and  Red-tailed  Hawks,  Barred  and  Screech 
Owls,  Downy  and  Hairy  Woodpeckers,  Blue  Jay,  Crow, 
Goldfinch,  Song  Sparrow,  White-breasted  Nuthatch,  and 
Chickadee. 

Generally  speaking,  the  birds  in  the  front  rank  of 
the  feathered  army  which  soon  will  invade  the  land  are 
those  whose  winter  quarters  are  farthest  north,  while 
those  that  winter  farthest  south  bring  up  the  rear. 

From  February  20  to  March  10,  therefore,  we  may 
expect  to  see  Purple  Grackles,  Robins,  Bluebirds,  and 
Red-winged  Blackbirds  ;  birds  that  have  wintered  but  a 
short  distance  south  of  us — if  not  with  us — and  who 
have  accepted  the  slightest  encouragement  from  the 
weather  as  an  order  to  advance.  All  the  first  comers 
will  doubtless  be  males,  this  sex,  as  a  rule,  preceding  the 
females  by  several  days. 

About  the  middle  of  March  we  may  look  for  the 
Woodcock,  Meadowlark,  Fox  Sparrow,  Cowbird,  and 
Phoebe ;  their  time  of  arrival  being  largely  dependent 
upon  the  temperature — warm  weather  hastening,  and 
cold  weather  retarding  their  movements. 

Toward  the  last  of  March,  Wilson's  Snipe,  the  King- 
fisher, Mourning  Dove,  Swamp  and  Field  Sparrows  are 
due. 

Early  in  April  the  Purple  Finch,  White-throated, 
Yesper,  and  Chipping  Sparrows  will  announce  their  re- 
turn in  familiar  notes,  and  at  the  same  time  Tree  Swal- 
lows, Myrtle  Warblers,  Pipits,  and  Hermit  Thrushes  will 
appear.  They  will  soon  be  followed  by  Barn  Swallows 
and  Ruby-crowned  Kinglets. 

The  migration  is  now  well  under  way,  and  we  go 
to  the  field  with  the  assurance  of  meeting  some  lately 
arrived  feathered  friend  almost  daily.  Between  April 
20  and  30  we  will  doubtless  note  among  the  newcomers, 
the  Green  Heron,  Spotted  Sandpiper,  Whip-poor-will, 


TIMES  OF  MIGRATION.  51 

Chimney  Swift,  Least  Flycatcher,  Towhee,  Purple  Mar- 
tin, Cliff  and  Bank  Swallows,  Black  and  White  and 
Black-throated  Green  Warblers,  Oven-bird,  House  Wren, 
Brown  Thrasher,  Catbird,  and  Wood  Thrush.  This 
troop  surely  is  not  without  musicians.  In  ringing 
tones  they  herald  the  victory  of  Spring  over  Winter. 

The  season  of  cold  waves  has  passed,  and  the  birds 
now  appear  with  the  regularity  of  calendar  events. 
From  May  1  to  12  the  migration  reaches  its  height. 
It  is  a  time  of  intense  interest  to  the  bird  student,  and 
happy  is  he  who  can  spend  unlimited  time  afield. 
Some  mornings  we  may  find  ten  or  more  different  spe- 
cies that  have  come  back  to  us,  and  each  one  may 
be  represented  by  many  individuals.  The  woods  are 
thronged  with  migrants,  and  the  scantily  leaved  trees 
and  bushes  enable  us  to  observe  them  far  more  easily 
than  we  can  when  they  travel  southward  in  the  fall. 
During  this  exciting  period  we  should  see  the  Cuckoos, 
Nighthawk,  Ruby -throated  Hummingbird,  Crested  Fly- 
catcher, Kingbird,  Wood  Pewee,  Baltimore  and  Orchard 
Orioles,  Bobolink,  Indigo  Bunting,  Rose-breasted  Gros- 
beak, Scarlet  Tanager,  Red -eyed,  Warbling,  Yellow- 
throated,  and  White-eyed  Yireos,  Long-billed  Marsh 
Wren,  Wilson's  Thrush,  Redstart,  Yellow-breasted  Chat, 
Maryland  Yellow-throat,  Yellow  Warbler,  and  others  of 
its  family. 

Succeeding  days  will  bring  additions  to  the  ranks  of 
these  species,  and  there  will  also  be  numerous  small 
Warblers  to  look  for,  but  by  May  12  all  our  more 
familiar  and  common  birds  have  arrived.  During  the 
rest  of  the  month,  as  the  transient  visitants,  or  species 
which  nest  farther  north,  pass  onward,  birds  gradually 
decrease  in  numbers,  and  by  June  5  we  have  left  only 
those  that  will  spend  the  summer  with  us. 

The    migration   over,  we  can  now  give  our  whole 


52  TIMES  OF  MIGRATION. 

attention  to  a  study  of  nesting  habits.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  nesting  season  begins  quite  as  early  as  the 
spring  migration,  the  Great  Horned  Owl  laying  its  eggs 
late  in  February.  In  March  and  April  other  birds  of 
prey  and  the  earlier  migrants  nest.  May  migrants  go 
to  housekeeping  soon  after  they  reach  their  old  homes, 
and  by  June  5  there  are  few  species  that  have  not 
nests. 

With  birds  that  rear  two  or  three  broods,  the  nest- 
ing season  may  extend  into  August.  With  those  that 
have  but  one  brood  it  may  be  over  early  in  July.  At 
this  time  we  begin  to  miss  the  jolly,  rollicking  music 
of  the  Bobolink.  Soon  he  will  leave  the  meadow  he  has 
animated  for  two  months,  and  with  his  young  join  grow- 
ing flocks  of  his  kind  in  the  wild -rice  marshes.  His 
handsome  suit  of  black  and  white  and  buff  will  be  ex- 
changed for  the  sparrowlike  Reedbird  dress,  and  in  place 
of  the  merry  song  he  will  utter  only  a  metallic  tink,.  This 
note  is  characteristic  of  the  season.  Day  and  night  we 
hear  it  from  birds  high  in  the  air  as  they  hasten  to  their 
rendezvous  in  the  marshes. 

July  1,  Tree  Swallows,  who  nest  rarely  if  at  all  near 
New  York  city,  appear  and  establish  their  headquarters 
in  the  Hackensack  meadows — a  first  step  on  the  migra- 
tory journey.  July  is  a  month  for  wanderers.  The  nest- 
ing season  of  most  one-brooded  birds  is  over ;  they  are 
not  yet  ready  to  migrate,  and  pass  the  time  roving  about 
the  country  with  their  families. 

In  August  birds  are  molting  and  moping.  The 
careful  observer  will  find  that  a  few  Warblers  and  Fly- 
catchers have  returned  from  the  north  and  are  passing 
southward,  but,  as  a  rule,  August  is  a  month  to  test 
the  patience  of  the  most  enthusiastic  bird  student.  Late 
in  the  month  migrants  become  more  numerous,  but  be- 
tween the  "flights"  or  "waves"  there  are  days  when 


TIMES  OF  MIGRATION.  53 

one  may  tramp  the  woods  for  miles  without  seeing  a 
dozen  birds. 

September  is  the  month  of  Warblers.  They  come  in 
myriads  during  the  latter  half  of  the  month,  and  on 
favorable  nights  we  may  sometimes  hear  their  fine-voiced 
tseeps  as  they  fly  by  overhead.  About  the  25th  of  the 
month  our  winter  residents,  the  Junco,  Winter  Wren, 
Golden  Kinglet,  and  Brown  Creeper,  will  arrive. 

The  summer  residents  are  now  rapidly  leaving  us. 
In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  last  birds  to 
arrive  in  the  spring  are  the  first  to  leave  in  the  fall, 
while  the  earliest  spring  migrants  remain  the  longest. 

October  and  November  are  the  months  of  Sparrows. 
They  rise  in  loose  flocks  from  every  stubble  or  weed 
field,  and  seek  shelter  in  the  bordering  bushy  growth. 
Should  the  season  prove  warm,  many  of  these  hardy 
seed-eaters  will  stay  with  us  well  into  December,  but  at 
the  first  really  cold  weather  they  retreat  southward. 

This  completes  the  merest  outline  of  the  move- 
ments of  our  migratory  birds.  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
reality  there  are  but  few  periods  during  the  year  when 
some  event  is  not  occurring  in  the  bird  world.  As  we 
accumulate  records  for  comparison,  and  learn  to  appre- 
ciate their  meaning,  our  interest  in  the  study  of  migra- 
tion will  increase  and  be  renewed  with  the  changing 
seasons. 

We  have  found,  in  this  brief  review,  that  our  birds 
may  be  placed  in  four  classes,  as  follows  : 

1.  Permanent  Residents. — Birds  that  are  represented 
in  the  same  locality  throughout  the  year. 

2.  Summer  Residents. — Birds  that  come  to  us  in  the 
spring,  rear  their  young,  and  depart  in  the  fall. 

3.  Winter  Residents. — Birds  that  come  from  the  north 
in  the  fall,  pass  the  winter  with  us,  and  return  to  their 
more  northern  homes  in  the  spring. 


54  MANNER  OF  MIGRATION. 

4.  Transient  Visitants. — Birds  whose  summer  home 
is  north  and  whose  winter  home  is  south  of  us.  In 
traveling  from  one  to  the  other  they  pass  through  the 
intervening  region  as  "  transients." 

Manner  of  Migration. — The  Oriole,  who  builds  his 
swinging  nest  in  your  elm  tree,  will  winter  in  Central 
America ;  the  Bobolink,  who  seems  so  care-free  in  your 
meadows,  must  journey  to  his  winter  quarters  in  southern 
Brazil.  But,  unless  accident  befalls,  both  birds  will  re- 
turn to  you  the  following  spring.  We  are  so  accustomed 
to  these  phenomena  that  we  accept  them  as  part  of  the 
changing  seasons  without  realizing  how  wonderful  they 
are.  But  look  for  a  moment  at  a  map,  and  try  to  form 
a  mental  picture  of  the  Bobolink's  route.  Over  valleys, 
mountains,  marshes,  plains,  and  forests,  over  straits  and 
seas  hundreds  of  miles  in  width,  he  pursues  a  course 
through  trackless  space  with  a  regularity  and  certainty 
which  brings  him  to  the  same  place  at  nearly  the  same 
time  year  after  year.  How  much  of  his  knowledge  of 
the  route  he  has  inherited,  and  how  much  learned  dur- 
ing his  own  lifetime,  is  a  question  we  may  return  to 
later ;  now  we  are  concerned  with  actual  methods  of 
migration. 

Immediately  after,  or  even  during  the  nesting  season, 
many  birds  begin  to  resort  nightly  to  roosts  frequented 
sometimes  by  immense  numbers  of  their  kinds,  with 
often  the  addition  of  other  species.  These  movements 
are  apparently  inaugurated  by  the  old  birds,  and  are  in 
a  sense  the  beginnings  of  the  real  migratory  journey. 
Other  birds  roam  the  woods  in  loose  bands  or  families, 
their  wanderings  being  largely  controlled  by  the  supply 
of  food. 

During  this  time  they  may  be  molting,  but  when 
their  new  plumage  is  acquired  they  are  ready  for  the 
start.  The  old  birds  lead  the  way,  either  alone  or  asso- 


MANNER  OF  MIGRATION.  55 

elated  with  the  young.  Some  fly  by  day,  some  by  night, 
and  others  by  both  day  and  night.  This  fact  was  first 
established  by  Mr.  William  Brewster,  who,  in  his  admi- 
rable memoir  on  Bird  Migration,  writes :  "  Timid,  seden- 
tary, or  feeble-winged  birds  migrate  by  night,  because 
they  are  either  afraid  to  venture  on  long,  exposed  jour- 
neys by  daylight,  or  unable  to  continue  these  journeys 
day  after  day  without  losing  much  time  in  stopping  to 
search  for  food.  By  taking  the  nights  for  traveling 
they  can  devote  the  days  entirely  to  feeding  and  resting 
in  their  favorite  haunts.  Good  examples  are  Thrushes 
(except  the  Robin),  Wrens,  Warblers,  and  Yireos. 

"  Bold,  restless,  strong- winged  birds  migrate  chiefly, 
or  very  freely,  by  day,  because,  being  accustomed  to  seek 
their  food  in  open  situations,  they  are  indifferent  to  con- 
cealment, and  being  further  able  to  accomplish  long  dis- 
tances rapidly  and  with  slight  fatigue,  they  can  ordi- 
narily spare  sufficient  time  by  the  way  for  brief  stops 
in  places  where  food  is  abundant  and  easily  obtained. 
Under  certain  conditions,  however,  as  when  crossing 
large  bodies  of  water  or  regions  scantily  supplied  with 
food,  they  are  sometimes  obliged  to  travel  partly,  or  per- 
haps even  exclusively,  by  night.  Excellent  examples  are 
the  Robin  (Merula\  Horned  Lark  (Otocoris),  and  most 
Icteridce  [Bobolink,  Blackbirds,  and  Orioles]. 

"  Birds  of  easy,  tireless  wing,  which  habitually  feed  in 
the  air  or  over  very  extensive  areas,  migrate  exclusively 
by  day,  because,  being  able  either  to  obtain  their  usual 
supply  of  food  as  they  fly,  or  to  accomplish  the  longest 
journeys  so  rapidly  that  they  do  not  require  to  feed  on 
the  way,  they  are  under  no  necessity  of  changing  their 
usual  habits.  The  best  examples  are  Swallows,  Swifts, 
and  Hawks." 

While  migrating,  birds  follow  mountain  chains,  coast- 
lines, and  particularly  river  valleys,  all  of  which  become 


56  MANNER  OF  MIGRATION. 

highways  of  migration.  Through  telescopic  observations 
it  has  been  learned  that  migrating  birds  travel  at  a  great 
height.  The  exact  height  remains  to  be  determined,  but 
it  is  known  that  many  migrants  are  at  least  a  mile  above 
the  earth.  From  this  elevation  they  command  an  ex- 
tended view,  and  in  clear  weather  prominent  features  of 
the  landscape  are  doubtless  distinguishable  to  their  pow- 
erful vision  at  a  great  distance. 

It  is  when  fogs  and  storms  obscure  the  view  that  birds 
lose  their  way.  Then  they  fly  much  lower,  perhaps  seek- 
ing some  landmark,  and,  should  a  lighthouse  lie  in  their 
path,  they  are  often  attracted  to  it  in  countless  numbers. 
Thousands  of  birds  perish  annually  by  striking  these 
lights  during  stormy  fall  weather.  In  the  spring  the 
weather  is  more  settled  and  fewer  birds  are  killed. 

Although  birds  are  guided  mainly  by  sight,  hearing  is 
also  of  assistance  to  them  on  their  migrations.  Indeed,  at 
night,  young  birds,  who  have  never  made  the  journey  be- 
fore, must  rely  largely  upon  this  sense  to  direct  them.  It 
is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  that  on  favorable  nights  during 
the  migratory  season  myriads  of  birds  are  passing  through 
the  dark  and  apparently  deserted  air  above  us.  Often 
they  are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  continuous  stream,  and 
if  we  listen  we  may  hear  their  voices  as  they  call  to  one 
another  while  flying  rapidly  onward. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  multitude  of  birds 
which  throng  the  upper  air  on  favorable  nights  during 
their  migration  by  using  a  telescope.  One  having  a  two- 
inch  object  glass  will  answer  the  purpose.  It  should  be 
focused  on  the  moon,  when  the  birds  in  passing  are  sil- 
houetted against  the  glowing  background.  At  the  proper 
focal  distance  they  appear  with  startling  distinctness.  In 
some  cases  each  wing-beat  can  be  detected,  and  with  a 
large  glass  it  is  even  possible  to  occasionally  recognize 
the  kind  of  bird. 


MANNER  OF  MIGRATION.  5? 

Observations  of  this  kind  should  be  made  in  Septem- 
ber, when  the  fall  migration  is  at  its  height.  On  the 
night  of  September  3,  1887,  at  Tenafly,  New  Jersey,  a 
friend  and  myself,  using  a  six-and-a-half -inch  equatorial 
glass,  saw  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  sixty-two  birds 
cross  the  narrow  angle  subtended  by  the  limbs  of  the 
moon  between  the  hours  of  eight  and  eleven.  Observa- 
tions made  several  years  later,  in  September,  from  the 
observatory  of  Columbia  University,  yielded  closely  simi- 
lar results. 

This  nocturnal  journey  of  birds  may  also  be  studied 
from  lighthouses.  On  September  26,  1891,  I  visited  the 
Bartholdi  Statue  of  the  Goddess  of  Liberty,  in  New  York 
Bay,  for  this  purpose.  The  weather  was  most  favorable. 
The  first  bird  was  observed  at  eight  o'clock,  and  for 
the  succeeding  two  hours  others  were  constantly  heard, 
though  comparatively  few  were  seen.  At  ten  o'clock  it 
began  to  rain ;  and  almost  simultaneously  there  was  a 
marked  increase  in  the  number  of  birds  about  the  light, 
and  within  a  few  minutes  there  were  hundreds  where 
before  there  was  one,  while  the  air  was  filled  with  the 
calls  of  the  passing  host. 

From  the  balcony  which  encircles  the  torch  the  scene 
was  impressive  beyond  description.  We  seemed  to  have 
torn  aside  the  veil  which  shrouds  the  mysteries  of  the 
night,  and  with  the  searching  light  exposed  the  secrets 
of  Nature. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  birds  hurried  onward  ; 
others  hovered  before  us,  like  Hummingbirds  before  a 
flower,  then  flew  swiftly  by  into  the  darkness  ;  and  some, 
apparently  blinded  by  the  brilliant  rays,  struck  the  statue 
slightly,  or  with  sufficient  force  to  cause  them  to  fall  dead 
or  dying.  At  daybreak  a  few  stragglers  were  still  wing- 
ing their  way  southward,  but  before  the  sun  rose  the 
flight  was  over. 


58  ORIGIN  OF  MIGRATION. 

Origin  of  Migration. — Why  do  birds  migrate  ?  It 
is  true  that  in  temperate  and  boreal  regions  the  return 
of  cold  weather  robs  them  of  their  food,  and  they  retreat 
southward.  But  many,  in  fact  most,  birds  begin  their 
southern  journey  long  before  the  iirst  fall  frost.  We 
have  seen  that  some  species  start  as  early  as  July  and 
August.  Furthermore,  there  are  many  birds  that  come 
to  our  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  States  to  nest,  and  when 
the  breeding  season  is  over  they  return  to  the  tropics. 
Surely,  a  lower  temperature  can  not  be  said  to  compel 
them  to  migrate.  Even  more  remarkable  than  the  south- 
ward journey  in  the  fall  is  the  northward  journey  in  the 
spring.  Our  birds  leave  their  winter  homes  in  the  tropics 
in  the  height  of  the  tropical  spring,  when  insect  and  vege- 
table food  is  daily  increasing.  They  leave  this  land  of 
plenty  for  one  from  which  the  snows  of  winter  have 
barely  disappeared,  often  coming  so  early  that  unseason- 
able weather  forces  them  to  retreat. 

I  believe  that  the  origin  of  this  great  pilgrimage  of 
countless  millions  of  birds  is  to  be  found  in  the  existence 
of  an  annual  nesting  season.  In  my  opinion,  it  is  exactly 
paralleled  by  the  migration  of  shad,  salmon,  and  other 
fishes  to  their  spawning  grounds,  and  the  regular  return 
of  seals  to  their  breeding  rookeries. 

Most  animals  have  an  instinctive  desire  for  seclusion 
during  the  period  of  reproduction,  and  when  this  season 
approaches  will  seek  some  retired  part  of  their  haunts  or 
range  in  which  to  bring  forth  their  young.  Salmon  may 
travel  a  thousand  miles  or  more  from  the  ocean,  and, 
leaping  the  rapids  or  other  barriers  in  their  way,  finally 
reach  the  headwaters  of  some  river  where  their  eggs 
may  be  deposited  in  safety.  Seals  migrate  with  regu- 
larity to  certain  islands,  where  their  young  are  born. 
Even  our  domesticated  Hens,  Turkeys,  Ducks,  and  Pea- 
fowl, if  given  freedom,  will  travel  a  greater  or  less  dis- 


ORIGIN  OF  MIGRATION.  59 

tance  in  search  of  a  place  where  they  may  conceal  their 
nests. 

Many  species  of  tropical  sea  birds  resort  each  year  to 
some  rocky  islet,  situated  perhaps  in  the  heart  of  their 
range,  where  they  may  nest  in  safety.  This  is  not  migra- 
tion as  we  understand  the  word ;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
object  is  the  same  as  that  which  prompts  a  Plover  to 
travel  to  the  arctic  regions  ;•  moreover,  the  movement  is 
just  as  regular.  These  sea  birds  pass  their  lives  in  the 
tropics,  their  presence  or  absence  in  any  part  of  their 
range  being  largely  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  food. 
But,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Warbler  which  migrates  from 
South  America  to  Labrador,  they  are  annually  affected 
by  an  impulse  which  urges  them  to  hasten  to  a  certain 
place.  This  impulse  is  periodic,  and  in  a  sense  is  com- 
mon to  all  birds.  There  is  a  regular  nesting  season  in 
the  tropics,  just  as  there  is  a  regular  nesting  season  in  the 
arctic  regions. 

There  is  good  reason,  therefore,  for  the  belief  that 
the  necessity  of  securing  a  home  in  which  their  young 
could  be  reared  was,  as  it  still  is,  the  cause  of  migration. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  birds  have  been 
migrating  for  ages,  and  that  the  present  conditions  are 
the  result  of  numerous  and  important  climatic  changes. 
Chief  among  these  is  doubtless  the  Glacial  period.  In- 
deed, Dr.  Allen  has  stated,  and  the  theory  has  been  gen- 
erally accepted,  that  the  migration  of  birds  was  the  out- 
come of  the  Glacial  period.  That  their  journeys  were 
greatly  increased  and  the  habit  of  migration  extended 
during  the  ice  age  is  apparently  undeniable,  but,  although 
previous  to  the  Glacial  period  a  warm  temperate  climate 
prevailed  nearly  to  the  northern  pole,  there  must  even 
then  have  been  sufficient  difference  between  winter  and 
summer  climate  to  render  a  certain  amount  of  migration 
necessary.  Furthermore,  there  is  a  well- defined  migra- 


60  ORIGIN  OF  MIGRATION. 

tion  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  no  evidences  of 
glaciation  have  as  yet  been  discovered. 

As  I  have  said,  the  existing  conditions  are  the  result 
of  changes  which  have  been  active  for  ages.  No  species, 
therefore,  has  acquired  its  present  summer  range  at  one 
step,  but  by  gradually  adding  new  territory  to  its  breed- 
ing ground.  For  example,  certain  of  our  Eastern  birds 
are  evidently  derived  through  Mexico,  and  in  returning 
to  their  winter  quarters  in  Central  America,  they  travel 
through  Texas  and  Mexico  and  are  unknown  in  Florida 
and  the  West  Indies.  Others  have  come  to  us  through 
Florida,  and  in  returning  to  their  winter  quarters  do  not 
pass  through  either  Texas  or  Mexico.  This  is  best  illus- 
trated by  the  Bobolink,  an  Eastern  bird  which,  breeding 
from  JSTew  Jersey  northward  to  Nova  Scotia,  has  spread 
westward  until  it  has  reached  Utah  and  northern  Mon- 
tana. But — and  here  is  the  interesting  point — these  birds 
of  the  far  West  do  not  follow  their  neighbors  and  migrate 
southward  through  the  Great  Basin  into  Mexico,  but, 
true  to  their  inherited  habit,  retrace  their  steps,  and  leave 
the  United  States  by  the  roundabout  way  of  Florida, 
crossing  thence  to  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  Yucatan,  and  win- 
tering south  of  the  Amazon.  The  Bobolinks  of  Utah 
did  not  learn  this  route  in  one  generation  ;  they  inherited 
the  experience  of  countless  generations,  slowly  acquired 
as  the  species  extended  its  range  westward,  and  in  return- 
ing across  the  continent  they  give  us  an  excellent  illustra- 
tion of  the  stability  of  routes  of  migration. 

They  furnish,  too,  an  instance  of  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  migration — that  is,  the  certainty 
with  which  a  bird  returns  to  the  region  of  its  birth. 
This  is  further  evidenced  by  certain  sea  birds  which 
nest  on  isolated  islets  to  which  they  regularly  return 
each  year. 

Of  this  wonderful  "  homing  instinct,"  which  plays  so 


ORIGIN  OF  MIGRATION.  61 

vital  a  part  in  the  migration  of  birds,  I  have  no  explana- 
tion to  offer.  We  know,  however,  that  it  exists  not  only 
in  birds  but  in  many  other  animals.  It  is  this  instinct, 
aided  by  the  "heredity  of  habit,"  which  guides  a  bird 
to  its  nesting  ground.  The  Carrier  Pigeon  is  taught  its 
lines  of  flight  by  gradually  extending  its  journeys ;  a 
species  establishes  its  routes  of  migration  by  gradually 
extending  its  range. 


CHAPTEK  Y. 
THE  VOICE   OF  BIRDS.* 

ASIDE  from  the  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  the  calls 
and  songs  of  birds,  their  notes  are  of  interest  to  us  as 
their  medium  of  expression.  No  one  who  has  closely 
studied  birds  will  doubt  that  they  have  a  language,  limited 
though  its  vocabulary  may  be. 

Song. — Song  is  a  secondary  sexual  character,  generally 
restricted  to  the  male.  With  it  he  woos  his  mate  and 
gives  voice  to  the  joyousness  of  nesting  time.  In  some 
instances  vocal  music  may  be  replaced  by  instrumental, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  drumming  wing-beat  of  the  Grouse, 
or  the  bill-tattoo  of  the  Woodpeckers,  both  of  which  are 
analogous  to  song. 

The  season  of  song  corresponds  more  or  less  closely 
with  the  mating  season,  though  some  species  begin  to 
sing  long  before  their  courting  days  are  near.  Others 
may  sing  to  some  extent  throughout  the  year,  but  the 
real  song  period  is  in  the  spring. 

Many  birds  have  a  second  song  period  immediately 
after  the  completion  of  their  post  breeding  molt,  but  it 
usually  lasts  only  for  a  few  days,  and  is  in  no  sense  com- 
parable to  the  true  season  of  song.  This  is  heralded  by 
the  Song  Sparrow,  whose  sweet  chant,  late  in  February, 

*  See  Witchell,  The  Evolution  of  Bird  Song  (Macmillan  Co.). 
Bicknell,  A  Study  of  the  Singing  of  Our  Birds;  The  Auk  (New  York 
city),  vol.  i,  1884,  pp.  60-71,  126-140,  209-218,  322-332;  vol.  ii,  1885, 
pp.  144-154,  249-262. 

62 


VOICE  OF  BIRDS.  63 

is  a  most  welcome  promise  of  spring.  Then  follow  the 
.Robins,  Blackbirds,  and  other  migrants,  until,  late  in 
May,  the  great  springtime  chorus  is  at  its  height. 

The  Bobolink  is  the  first  bird  to  desert  the  choir. 
We  do  not  often  hear  him  after  July  5.  Soon  he  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  Yeery,  arid  each  day  now  shows  some  fresh 
vacancy  in  the  ranks  of  the  feathered  singers,  until  by 
August  5  we  have  left  only  the  Wood  Pewee,  Indigo 
Bunting,  and  Red-eyed  Vireo — tireless  songsters  who 
fear  neither  midsummer  nor  midday  heat. 

Call-Notes. — The  call-notes  of  birds  are  even  more 
worthy  of  our  attention  than  are  their  songs.  Song  is 
the  outburst  of  a  special  emotion  ;  call -notes  form  the 
language  of  every  day.  Many  of  us  are  familiar  with 
birds'  songs,  but  who  knows  their  every  call-note  and 
who  can  tell  us  what  each  call  means  ?  For  they  have  a 
meaning  that  close  observation  often  makes  intelligible. 

Listen  to  the  calls  of  the  Robin  and  learn  how  unmis- 
takably he  expresses  suspicion,  alarm,  or  extreme  fear ; 
how  he  signals  cheerfully  to  his  companions  or  gives  the 
word  to  take  wing.  Study  the  calls  of  the  Crow  or  Blue 
Jay,  and  you  will  find  that  they  have  an  apparently  ex- 
haustless  vocabulary. 

It  is  supposed  that  birds,  like  men,  do  not  inherit 
their  language,  but  acquire  it.  Thus  there  are  recorded 
instances  of  young  birds  who  had  been  isolated  from 
others  of  their  kind,  learning  to  sing  whatever  song  they 
heard.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  said  that  a  bird  inherits 
its  own  notes,  at  least  to  some  extent,  and,  while  it  may 
not  sing  the  song  of  its  species  perfectly,  its  song  will 
still  be  sufficiently  characteristic  to  be  recognizable. 
There  are,  however,  very  few  satisfactory  observations 
on  this  subject,  and  keepers  of  cage-birds  have  here  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  original  investigation. 


CHAPTEK  VI. 

THE  NESTING  SEASON.* 

IF  you  would  really  know  birds,  you  must  study  them 
during  nesting  time.  At  this  season  they  develop  habits 
that  you  will  be  surprised  to  learn  they  possess.  The 
humble  owner  of  some  insignificant  call-note  now  fills  the 
role  of  a  skilled  musician.  The  graceful,  leisurely  Marsh 
Hawk  gives  vent  to  his  feelings  in  a  series  of  aerial  som- 
ersaults over  the  meadows ;  the  sedate,  dignified  Wood- 
cock tries  to  express  his  emotions  by  means  of  spiral  evo- 
lutions which  carry  him  far  above  his  usual  haunts ;  the 
Night-Hawk  dives  earthward  with  needless  recklessness  ; 
in  fact,  birds  seem  inspired  by  the  joy  of  the  season,  and 
all  the  brightness  of  a  May  morning  is  reflected  in  their 
voices  and  actions. 

Mating  over,  there  follow  the  marvels  of  nest-build- 
ing with  its  combined  evidences  of  instinct  and  intelli- 
gence. In  due  time  the  young  appear,  and  the  bird,  now 
a  parent,  abandons  the  gay  habits  of  the  suitor,  and  de- 
votes every  waking  moment  to  the  care  of  its  young. 

Time  of  Nesting. — With  most  birds  the  nesting  season 
is  periodic  and  annual.  With  migratory  birds  it  coin- 
cides with  the  season  of  the  year  when  their  summer 
homes  are  habitable.  But  we  might  suppose  that  the 


*  Read  In  Nesting  Time,  Little  Brothers  of  the  Air,  and  other 
works  by  Olive  Thorne  Miller.  A-Birding  on  a  Broncho,  by  Florence 
A.  Merriam  (Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.). 

64 


MATING.  65 

permanent  residents  of  the  tropics,  where  seasonal  changes 
are  less  marked,  could  nest  at  any  time.  Nevertheless, 
the  breeding  season  in  the  tropics  is  as  well  defined  as  it 
is  in  more  northern  regions,  and  occurs  with  the  return 
of  summer,  or  the  season  of  rains.  It  is  therefore  at  a 
time  of  the  year  when  food  is  most  abundant. 

There  is  an  obvious  necessity  for  this  regularity.  Old 
birds  can  wander  over  large  areas  in  search  of  food,  but 
the  young  of  many  species  must  be  fed  in  the  nest,  and 
their  food  supply  should  be  both  exhaustless  and  con- 
venient of  access. 

Among  our  birds,  the  Hawks  and  Owls,  whose  young 
are  fed  on  animal  food,  are  the  first  birds  to  nest,  while 
those  which  feed  their  young  on  fruit  or  insects  wait 
until  later  in  the  year. 

Mating. — Birds  are  ardent  lovers.  In  their  effort  to 
win  a  bride  the  males  display  their  charms  of  song  and 
plumage  to  the  utmost,  and  will  even  enter  the  lists  to 
do  battle  for  the  possession  of  a  mate. 

It  is  not  possible  to  describe  here  the  many  pecul- 
iar customs  of  birds  during  the  season  of  courtship. 
It  may  simply  be  said  that  every  bird  will  then  re- 
pay the  closest  observation.  For  the  scientific-minded 
there  is  opportunity  to  secure  evidence  bearing  upon 
the  theory  of  Natural  Selection ;  for  every  one  there  is 
endless  entertainment  in  the  human  traits  which  birds 
exhibit. 

The  Nest. — The  first  step  in  nest-building  is  the  selec- 
tion of  a  site.  There  is  almost  no  suitable  location,  from 
a  hole  in  the  ground  to  branches  in  the  tree-tops,  in  which 
birds  may  not  place  their  nests.  Protection  seems  to  be 
the  chief  desideratum,  and  this  is  generally  secured 
through  concealment.  Most  birds  hide  their  nests. 
Many  sea  birds,  however,  lay  their  eggs  on  the  shores 
or  cliffs,  with  no  attempt  at  concealment ;  but?  as  a  rule. 


66  BIRDS'  NESTS. 

birds  that  nest  in  this  manner  resort  to  uninhabited 
islets  and  secure  protection  through  isolation. 

Some  birds  nest  alone,  and  jealously  guard  the  vicin- 
ity of  their  home  from  the  approach  of  other  birds, 
generally  of  the  same  species.  Others  nest  in  colonies 
brought  together  by  temperament  or  community  of 
interests,  and  dwell  on  terms  of  the  closest  sociability. 

The  material  used  by  birds  in  building  their  nests 
is  as  varied  as  the  nature  of  the  sites  they  select.  The 
vegetable  kingdom  contributes  much  the  largest  share. 
Grasses,  twigs,  and  rootlets  are  the  standard  materials ; 
but  plant-down,  plant-fibers,  bark,  leaves,  lichens,  clay, 
spiders'  webs,  hair,  fur,  and  feathers  are  also  used,  while 
in  some  cases  a  gummy  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands 
furnishes  a  kind  of  glue. 

Birds  have  been  classified,  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  they  employ  these  articles,  as  weavers,  tailors, 
masons,  molders,  carpenters,  felters,  etc. 

Sometimes  both  sexes  assist  in  the  construction  of  the 
nest,  or  one  bird  collects  the  material  while  the  other 
adjusts  it.  Again,  the  female  performs  the  task  alone, 
aided  only  by  the  encouraging  voice  of  the  male. 

The  time  of  construction  varies  from  one  to  two 
weeks  to  as  long  as  three  months  in  the  case  of  the  South 
American  Ovenbird,  who  in  June  begins  to  build  the 
nest  it  will  not  occupy  until  October.  The  Fish  Hawk 
evidently  believes  in  the  value  of  a  stick  in  time,  and 
often  repairs  its  nest  in  the  fall. 

Lack  of  space  prohibits  a  discussion  of  the  influences 
which  assist  in  determining  the  character  of  birds'  nests. 
They  may  be  summarized  as  follows  : 

First)  necessity  for  protection. 

Second^  conditions  imposed  by  locality.  These  affect 
both  the  site  and  material,  as  illustrated  by  Doves,  who 
nest  in  trees  in  wooded  countries  and  on  the  ground  in 


BIRDS'  NESTS.  67 

treeless  regions,  and  by  birds  who  substitute  strings, 
cotton,  or  rags  for  their  usual  nesting  materials. 

Third,  condition  of  the  young  at  birth,  whether 
feathered  or  naked.  The  young  of  what  are  termed 
"  prsecocial "  birds  are  hatched  with  a  covering  of 
downy  feathers.  Gulls,  Ducks,  Snipe,  Chickens,  Par- 
tridges, and  Quails  are  familiar  members  of  this  group. 
Their  young  can  run  'about  soon  after  birth,  and  a  well- 
formed  nest  is  not  needed.  But  the  young  of  "  altricial " 
birds  are  hatched  practically  naked  and  are  reared  in  the 
nest,  which  is  therefore  not  only  a  receptacle  for  the  eggs 
during  incubation,  but  a  home.  Thrushes,  Sparrows,  in 
fact  all  Perching  Birds,  Woodpeckers,  Hummingbirds, 
and  many  others  belong  in  this  group  of  altricial  birds. 

Fourth,  temperament,  whether  solitary  or  social. 
Hawks,  fierce  and  gloomy,  nest  alone,  while  the  cheery, 
happy  Swallows  nest  in  colonies. 

Fifth,  structure  of  the  bird.  The  tools — that  is,  the 
bills  and  feet — of  some  birds  are  more  serviceable  than 
those  of  others.  We  should  not  expect  a  Dove  to  build 
the  woven  nest  of  an  Oriole,  nor  a  Hummingbird  to 
fashion  a  Woodpecker's  dwelling. 

Sixth,  feeding  habit.  In  some  few  cases  feeding 
habit  may  determine  the  character  of  the  nest.  For 
instance,  Woodpeckers,  in  securing  their  food  from  trees, 
often  make  large  excavations,  which  it  is  quite  natural 
they  should  have  learned  to  use  as  nests. 

Seventh,  inherited  habit,  or  instinct.  There  seems  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  birds  inherit  their  knowledge  of  nest- 
building,  for  in  several  cases  where  birds  have  been  taken 
from  the  nest  and  reared  alone,  they  have  afterward 
constructed  a  nest  resembling  that  of  their  species.  It 
would  therefore  appear  that  inherited  habit  is  a  fact. 
Through  it  we  may  explain  not  only  the  similarity  in  the 
nests  of  the  same  species,  but  also  certain  habits  for 


68  BIRDS'  EGGS. 

which  we  can  give  no  satisfactory  reason.  Thus  the 
Crested  Flycatcher's  strange  custom  of  using  a  cast 
snake-skin  in  its  nesting  materials  probably  originated 
with  the  birds  in  the  tropics,  where  it  is  still  followed 
by  nearly  related  species  of  Crested  Flycatchers.  With 
them  there  may  be  a  reason  for  this  habit,  but  with  our 
bird,  living  as  it  does  under  entirely  different  conditions, 
it  is  doubtless  only  an  inheritance,  surviving  even  when 
the  necessity  for  it  has  ceased  to  exist. 

Eighth^  change  of  habit.  Some  birds  are  influenced 
by  changes  in  their  surroundings,  and  alter  their  nesting 
habits  when  it  proves  to  their  advantage  to  do  so. 
Chimney  Swifts,  who  have  exchanged  hollow  trees,  in 
which  they  were  exposed  to  their  natural  enemies,  for 
the  comparative  safety  of  chimneys,  are  good  examples. 
But  a  far  better  one  is  given  by  that  prodigy  in  feathers, 
the  House  Sparrow.  Is  there  any  available  site  in  which 
this  thoroughly  up-to-date  bird  will  not  place  its  nest? 
It  has  taken  possession  of  even  the  hollow  spaces  about 
certain  kinds  of  electric  lamps,  and  has  been  observed 
repairing  its  nest  at  night  by  their  light ! 

The  Eggs. — Usually,  little  time  is  lost  between  the 
completion  of  the  nest  and  the  laying  of  the  eggs.  The 
number  of  eggs  composing  what  oologists  term  a  full 
set  or  clutch  ranges  from  one  to  as  many  as  twenty.  At 
the  time  of  laying,  the  ovary  contains  a  large  number  of 
partly  formed  eggs,  of  which,  normally,  only  the  required 
number  will  become  fully  developed.  But  if  the  nest  be 
robbed,  the  stolen  egg  will  frequently  be  replaced.  The 
long-continued  laying  of  our  domestic  fowls  is  an  instance 
of  this  unnatural  stimulation  of  the  ovary.  Doubtless  the 
most  remarkable  recorded  case  of  egg-laying  by  a  wild 
bird  is  that  of  a  High -hole  or  Flicker,  who,  on  being  regu- 
larly robbed,  laid  seventy-one  eggs  in  seventy -three  days ! 

The  eggshell  is  composed  largely  of  carbonate  of  lime, 


BIRDS'  EGGS.  £9 

which  is  deposited  in  layers.  The  final  layer  varies  greatly 
in  appearance,  and  may  be  a  rough,  chalky  deposit,  as  in 
Cormorants  and  others,  or  thin  and  highly  polished,  as  in 
Woodpeckers. 

The  colors  of  eggs  are  due  to  pigments,  resembling 
bile  pigments,  deposited  by  ducts  while  the  egg  is  in  the 
oviduct.  One  or  more  of  the  layers  of  shell  may  be  pig- 
mented,  and  variations  in  the  tints  of  the  same  pigment 
may  be  caused  by  an  added  layer  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
producing  the  so-called  "  clouded  "  or  "  shell  markings." 

While  the  eggs  of  the  same  species  more  or  less 
closely  resemble  one  another,  there  is  often  so  great  a 
range  of  variation  in  color  that,  unless  seen  with  the 


FIG.  24.— Egg  of  (a)  Spotted  Sandpiper,  (5)  Catbird,  to  show  difference  in 
size  of  eggs  of  pnecocial  and  altricial  birds  of  same  size.     (Natural  size.) 

parent,  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  identify  eggs  with 
certainty.  The  eggs  of  praecocial  birds,  whose  young  are 
born  with  a  covering  of  down  and  can  run  or  swim  at 
birth,  are,  as  a  rule,  proportionately  larger  than  the  eggs 
of  altricial  birds,  whose  young  are  born  in  a  much  less 
advanced  condition.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  accom- 
panying figure  of  the  eggs  of  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  and 
the  Catbird. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  apparently  closely  depend- 
ent upon  the  size  of  the  egg,  and  varies  from  ten  days 
in  the  Hummingbird  to  forty  odd  in  the  Ostrich  and,  it 
is  said,  some  fifty  in  the  Emu. 


70  YOUNG  BIRDS. 

Among  some  species  both  sexes  share  equally  the  task 
of  incubation.  In  others,  the  female  is  longer  on  the 
nest,  the  male  taking  her  place  during  a  short  period  each 
day  while  she  is  feeding.  Less  frequently  the  female  is 
not  at  all  assisted  by  her  mate,  and  in  some  cases — Os- 
triches, Emus,  Phalaropes,  and  a  few  others — the  male 
alone  incubates. 

The  Young. — The  care  of  the  young  and  their  men- 
tal and  physical  development  afford  us  unequaled  oppor- 
tunities for  the  study  of  bird  character.  We  may  now 
become  acquainted  not  only  with  the  species  but  with 
individual  birds,  and  at  a  time  when  the  greatest  demands 
are  made  upon  their  intelligence. 

We  may  see  the  seed-eaters  gathering  insects  and  per- 
haps beating  them  into  a  pulp  before  giving  them  to  their 
nestlings :  or  we  may  learn  how  the  Doves,  High-holes, 
and  Hummingbirds  pump  softened  food  from  their  crops 
down  the  throats  of  their  offspring. 

The  activity  of  the  parents  at  this  season  is  amazing. 
Think  of  the  day's  work  before  a  pair  of  Chickadees  with 
a  family  of  six  or  eight  fledglings  clamoring  for  food 
from  daylight  to  dark ! 

But  the  young  birds  themselves  furnish  far  more  in- 
teresting and  valuable  subjects  for  study.  None  of  the 
higher  animals  can  be  reared  so  easily  without  the  aid  of 
a  parent.  We  therefore  can  not  only  study  their  growth 
of  body  and  mind  when  in  the  nest  and  attended  by 
their  parents,  but  we  can  isolate  the  young  of  praecocial 
birds,  such  as  Chickens,  from  other  birds  and  study  their 
mental  development  where  they  have  no  opportunity  to 
learn  by  imitation.  In  this  way  students  of  instinct  and 
heredity  have  obtained  most  valuable  results.* 

*  Read  Lloyd  Morgan's  Habit  and  Instinct  (Edward  Arnold,  New 
York  city). 


CHAPTEK  VII. 
HOW  TO   IDENTIFY  BIRDS. 

THE  preceding  outline  of  the  events  which  may  enter 
into  a  bird's  life-history  has,  I  trust,  given  some  idea  of 
the  possibilities  attending  the  study  of  birds  in  the  field. 
We  come  now  to  the  practical  question  of  identification. 
How  are  we  to  find  birds,  and,  having  found  them,  how 
are  we  to  learn  their  names  ? 

From  April  to  August  there  is  probably  not  a  min- 
ute of  the  day  when  in  a  favorable  locality  one  can  not 
see  or  hear  birds ;  and  there  is  not  a  day  in  the  year 
when  at  least  some  birds  can  not  be  found.  In  the  be- 
ginning, therefore,  the  question  of  finding  them  is  simply 
a  matter  of  looking  and  listening.  Later  will  come  the 
delightful  hunts  for  certain  rarer  species  whose  acquaint- 
ance we  may  make  only  through  a  knowledge  of  their 
haunts  and  habits. 

Having  found  your  bird,  there  is  one  thing  absolutely 
necessary  to  its  identification  :  you  must  see  it  definitely. 
Do  not  describe  a  bird  to  an  ornithologist  as  "  brown, 
with  white  spots  on  its  wings,"  and  then  expect  him  to 
tell  you  what  it  is.  Would  you  think  of  trying  to  iden- 
tify flowers  of  which  you  caught  only  a  glimpse  from  a 
car  window  in  passing  ?  You  did  not  see  them  definitely, 
and  at  best  you  can  only  carry  their  image  in  your  mind 
until  you  have  opportunity  to  see  them  in  detail. 

So  it  is  with  birds.  Do  not  be  discouraged  if  the 
books  fail  to  show  you  the  brown  bird  with  white  spots 

71 


72  HOW  TO  IDENTIFY  BIRDS. 

on  its  wings.  Probably  it  exists  only  through  your  hasty 
observation. 

Arm  yourself  with  a  field-  or  opera-glass,  therefore, 
without  which  you  will  be  badly  handicapped,  and  look 
your  bird  over  with  enough  care  to  get  a  general  idea  of 
its  size,  form — particularly  the  form  of  the  bill — color, 
and  markings.  Then — and  I  can  not  emphasize  this  too 
strongly — put  what  you  have  seen  into  your  note-book 
at  once.  For,  as  I  have  elsewhere  said,  unot  only  do 
our  memories  sometimes  deceive  us,  but  we  really 
see  nothing  with  exactness  until  we  attempt  to  de- 
scribe it." 

It  is  true  that  all  the  birds  will  not  pose  before  your 
glasses  long  enough  for  you  to  examine  them  at  your 
leisure,  but  many  of  them  will,  and  in  following  the 
others  you  will  have  all  the  excitement  of  the  chase. 
Who  knows  what  rare  species  the  stranger  may  prove 
to  be! 

From  your  description,  and  what  added  notes  on  voice 
and  actions  you  may  obtain,  the  field  key  and  illustra- 
tions on  the  succeeding  pages  should  make  identification 
a  simple  matter.*  You  should  also  take  into  considera- 
tion the  season  of  the  year  when  a  bird  is  present,  and 
not  call  a  summer  bird  by  a  winter  bird's  name.  The 
dates  of  migration  given  in  the  following  pages  will  be  of 
assistance  here.  They  refer  to  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
city,  where,  in  the  spring,  birds  arrive  about  a  week  later 

*  The  publishers'  liberality  has  resulted  in  securing  bird  portraits 
of  unusual  excellence.  Mr.  Seton  Thompson  is  an  ornithologist  as 
well  as  an  artist ;  his  subjects  are  personal  friends.  He  has  spared  no 
effort  to  make  these  pictures  characteristic  life  sketches,  and  I  ven- 
ture to  claim  that,  as  a  whole,  they  excel  in  truth  and  beauty  any 
bird-drawings  ever  published  in  this  country. 

The  descriptions  accompanying  these  plates  are  designed  to  give 
only  what  the  plates  lack — that  is,  color,  the  pattern  of  coloration 
being  clearly  indicated  by  the  drawing  itself. 


A  BIRD'S  BIOGRAPHY.  73 

than  in  central  Illinois  or  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  a 
week  earlier  than  at  Boston.  In  the  fall  these  conditions 
are  reversed. 

A  Bird's  Biography. — As  a  further  guide  to  your 
observation  a  list  of  the  principal  details  which  enter  into 
a  bird's  life-history  is  appended : 

1.  DESCRIPTION  (of  size,  form,  color,  and  markings). 

2.  HAUNTS          (upland,  lowland,  lakes,  rivers,  woods,  fields,  etc.). 

3.  MOVEMENTS    (slow  or  active,  hops,  walks,  creeps,  swims,  tail 

wagged,  etc.). 

4.  APPEARANCE  (alert,  pensive,  crest  erect,  tail  drooped,  etc.). 

5.  DISPOSITION    (social,  solitary,  wary,  unsuspicious,  etc.). 

6.  FLIGHT  (slow,  rapid,  direct,  undulating,  soaring,  sailing, 

flapping,  etc.). 

7.  SONG  (pleasing,  unattractive,  continuous,   short,  loud, 

low,  sung  from  the  ground,  from  a  perch,  in 
the  air,  etc. ;  season  of  song). 

8.  CALL-NOTES    (of  surprise,  alarm,  protest,  warning,  signaling, 

etc.). 

9.  SEASON  (spring,  fall,  summer,  winter,  with  times  of  ar- 

rival and   departure,  and   variations   in  num- 
bers). 

10.  FOOD  (berries,  insects,  seeds,  etc. ;  how  secured). 

11.  MATING  (habits  during  courtship). 

12.  NESTING          (choice  of  site,  material,  construction,  eggs,  incu- 

bation). 

13.  THE  YOUNG    (food  and  care  of,  time  in  the  nest,  notes,  actions 

flight). 

From  observations  of  this  kind,  consisting  of  a  simple 
statement  of  facts,  you  may  philosophize  according  to 
your  nature  on  the  relation  between  habit  and  structure, 
colors  and  haunts,  and  intelligent  adaptation  to  new  con- 
ditions. Beware,  however,  lest  you  be  led  to  draw  faulty 
conclusions  from  insufficient  observation.  Do  not  make 
the  individual  stand  for  its  species,  or  the  species  for  its 
family,  and  remember  that  one  is  warranted  in  theorizing 
only  when  the  facts  in  the  case  are  facts  indeed. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  A  BIRD. 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 
A  FIELD  KEY  TO  OUR  COMMON  LAND  BIRDS. 

WHEN  you  have  seen  a  bird  with  sufficient  definite- 
ness  to  describe  its  color,  form,  and  actions,  reference  to 
the  following  key  will  often  prove  a  short  cut  to  its 
identity.  This  key  is  based  only  on  adult  males,  who, 
because  of  their  song,  often  brighter  colors,  and  greater 
activity,  are  far  more  frequently  observed  than  the 
females.  But,  knowing  the  male,  you  will  rarely,  during 
the  nesting  season,  be  at  loss  to  recognize  his  mate. 

In  order  to  simplify  the  key,  the  water  birds,  Hawks, 
and  Owls  are  omitted,  in  the  belief  that  they  will  be 
more  readily  identified  by  reference  to  the  plates. 

The  use  of  the  key  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing example :  Let  us  imagine  that  you  see  a  Chipping 
Sparrow  (Plate  XLV)  feeding  about  your  doorstep. 
You  note  his  size,  chestnut  cap  bordered  by  white,  black 
bill,  brownish,  streaked  back,  and  grayish  white,  un- 
marked under  parts.  Turning  now  to  the  key,  you  will 
see  that  by  exclusion  the  bird  belongs  in  "  Section  V r 
of  the  "  Third  Group,"  and  that  it  should  be  placed  in 
subsection  "  1 "  of  this  section,  which  includes  birds  hav- 
ing the  "  under  parts  white  or  whitish,  all  one  color,  with- 
out streaks  or  spots."  You  have  now  two  subdivisions  to 
choose  from — "  A.  Back  without  streaks  or  spots,"  and 
"B.  Back  brownish,  streaked."  Your  bird  falls  under 
"  B,"  where  again  you  have  two  subdivisions,  "  a..  Crown 
rufous  or  chestnut,  without  streaks,"  and  "  5.  Crown  not 
rufous  or  chestnut."  Your  bird  should  be  referred  to 
"  «,"  where  you  will  at  once  find  it  described  under  "  a1 " 
as  the  Chipping  Sparrow. 

75 


76  FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  living  birds  do  not 
look  as  long  as  they  really  are.  The  measurement  of 
"length"  is  taken  with  the  bird's  neck  and  tail  out- 
stretched in  a  straight  line.  In  life  the  tail  may  be  raised 
or  drooped,  while  the  neck  is  drawn  in  or  curved,  making 
the  bird  look  shorter  than  measurement  shows  it  to  be. 
Remember  that  the  Robin  measures  ten  inches,  the  House 
Sparrow  six  and  one-fourth  inches,  and  the  Ruby-throated 
Humming-bird  three  and  three-fourths  inches  in  length, 
and  you  will  have  a  basis  for  comparison. 

FIRST  GROUP. 

BIRDS   THAT   FEED   ON  THE   WING   FOR  LONG   INTERVALS  OF  TIME 
WITHOUT   PERCHING. 

(Swallows,  Swift,  Nighthawk,  Whip-poor-will.) 
I.  Size  large,  length  over  9-00  inches ;  the  spread  wings  over  IS'OO 
inches  in  extent ;  generally  seen  only  late  in  the  afternoon  or  at 
dusk. 

1.  A  bird  of  the  air,  flying  high,  often  over  housetops  in  cities ;  a  conspicu- 
ous white  spot  in  each  wing ;  note,  a  loud,  nasal  peent ;  sometimes  dives 
earthward  with  a  booming  sound ;  May  to  Oct.    .     NIGHTHAWK,  page  144. 

2.  Haunts,  near  the  ground,  not  often  observed  while  feeding;  call,  given 
from  a  rock,  stump,  or  similar  perch,  whip-poor-will,  vigorously  repeated ; 
Apl.  25  to  Oct WHIP-POOR-WILL,  page  146. 

II.  Size  smaller,  length  under  9'00  inches ;  the  spread  wings  less  than 
15'00  inches  in  extent ;  may  be  seen  at  any  time  of  the  day. 

1.  Plumage  entirely  black. 

a.  Length  5-50  inches ;  plumage  sooty  black  ;  usually  nests  in  chimneys ; 
Apl.  25  to  Oct CHIMNEY  SWIFT,  page  146. 

b.  Length  8-00  inches;  glossy,  bluish  black;  nests  in  gourds  or  houses 
erected  for  its  use ;  Apl.  25  to  Sept.   .    .    .    PURPLE  MARTIN,  page  216. 

2.  Plumage  not  entirely  black ;  Apl.  to  Oct.     .    SWALLOWS,  pages  214,  215. 

SECOND  GROUP. 

CLIMBING   AND   CREEPING   BIRDS. 

(Nuthatches,  Creepers,  Woodpeckers?) 
I.  Birds  without  stiffly  pointed  tail-feathers,  that  climb  either  up  or 

down. 

1.  Length   6*00   inches;   back  gray,  cap   black,  cheeks  and  under  parts 
white ;  note,  a  nasal  yank,  yank ;  a  permanent  resident. 

WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH,  page  250. 


FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS.  77 

2.  Length  4-50  inches;  back  gray,  cap  black,  a  blackish  streak  through 
the  face  ;  under  parts  reddish  brown ;  note,  high  and  thin,  like  the  tone 
of  a  penny  trumpet ;  Sept.  to  Apl.      KED-BREASTED  NUTHATCH,  page    25. 

3.  Length  5-25  inches ;  upper  parts  streaked  black  and  white ;  note,  a  thin 
wiry  see-see-see-see ;  Apl.  25  to  Oct. 

BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER,  page  226. 
II.  Birds  with  stiffly  pointed  tail-feathers,  that  always  climb  upward. 

1.  Length   5*65  inches ;  plumage  dull  brown  and  black ;  size  small,  bill 
slender ;  an  inconspicuous  bird  who  winds  his  way  up  the  trunks  search- 
ing for  insects'  eggs,  etc. ;  note,  fine  and  squeaky  ;  Sept.  25  to  Apl. 

BROWN  CREEPER,  page  246. 

2.  Plumage  with  more  or  less  white,  size  larger,  bill  stouter,  chisel-like, 
often  used  in  hammering. 

A.  Length  9'75  inches ;  head  red,  back  black ;  flight  showing  a  large 
white  patch  in  the  wing  .     .    .    KED-HEADED  WOODPECKER,  page  140. 

B.  Length  12-00  inches;  crown  gray;  a  red  band  on  the  nape;  flight 
showing  a  white  patch  on  the  lower  back  and  yellow  in  the  wings ; 
often  flushed  from  the  ground ;  note,  kee-yer     .    .     FLICKER,  page  138. 

C.  Length  6-75  inches  ;  crown  black ;  back  and  wings  black  and  white  ; 
note,  a  sharp  peek DOWNY  WOODPECKER,  page  138. 

THIRD  GROUP. 

BIRDS   NOT  INCLUDED   IN  THE   PRECEDING   GROUPS. 

(blackbirds,  Orioles,  Sparrows,  Vireos,  Warblers,  Thrushes,  etc.) 

SECTION  I.  With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  plumage. 

SECTION  II.  With  red  in  the  plumage. 

SECTION  III.  With  blue  in  the  plumage. 

SECTION  IV.  Plumage  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white. 

SECTION  V.  Birds  not  included  in  the  preceding  sections. 

I.  With  yellow  or  orange  in  the  plumage. 

1.  Throat  yellow. 
A.  Throat  and  breast  pure  yellow,  without  streaks  or  spots. 

a.  Length  5*10  inches  ;  cap,  wings,  and  tail  black  ;  back  yellow ;  song 
canarylike,  sometimes  uttered  on  the  wing  ;  flight  undulating,  fre- 
quently accompanied  by  the  notes  chic-o-ree,  per-chic-o-ree ;  a  per- 
manent resident AM.  GOLDFINCH,  page  198. 

b.  Length  5-95  inches ;  lower  belly  and  wing-bars  white ;  back  olive- 
green  ;  frequents  the  upper  branches,  generally  in  woodland  ;  actions 
deliberate ;  song  loud  and  musical,  uttered  slowly,  often  with  pauses : 
"  See  me  ?    I'm  here ;  where  are  you  ? " ;  May  to  Sept. 

YELLOW-THROATED  VIREO,  page  222. 

c.  Length  5-25  inches  ;  cheeks  and  forehead  black,  bordered  by  ashy  ; 
upper  parts  olive-green  ;  no  wing-bars  ;  haunts  thickets  and  under- 
growth ;  movements  nervous  and  active ;   call-note  pit  or  cJiacTc ; 
song,  a  vigorous,  rapid  witch-e-wee-o,  witch-e-wee-o ;  May  to  Oct. 

MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT,  page  234. 


78  FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS. 

d.  Length  7'45  inches ;  upper  parts  olive-green ;  no  wing-bars ;  a  white 
line  before  the  eye ;  haunts  thickets  and  undergrowth ;  song,  a  strik- 
ing mixture  of  whistles,  chucks,  and  caws,  sometimes  uttered  on  the 
wing ;  May  to  Sept YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT,  page  236. 

B.  Under  parts  streaked  with  reddish  brown ;  length  5-00  inches ;  gen- 
eral appearance  of  a  yellow  bird  ;  haunts  shrubbery  of  lawns,  orchards, 
second  growths,  and  particularly  willows  near  water ;  song,  rather  loud, 
wee,  chee-chee-chee,  cfter-wee,  or  chee-chee-chee-chee,  way-o  ;  May  to  Sept. 

YELLOW  WARBLEK,  page  228. 

C.  Breast  yellow,  with  a  conspicuous  black  crescent ;  length  10-75  inches ; 
haunts  fields  and  meadows,  largely  terrestrial ;  flight  quail-like,  outer 
tail-feathers  white,  showing  when  on  the  wing  ;  song,  a  loud,  musical 
whistle  ;  a  permanent  resident MEADOWLARK,  page  174. 

2.  Throat  white. 

A.  With  yellow  on  the  sides. 

a.  Length  5-50  inches ;  rump  yellow ;  breast  streaked  or  spotted  with 
black  ;  tail-feathers  marked  with  white ;  note,  a  characteristic  tchip ; 
Sept.  to  May,  usually  rare  or  local  in  winter. 

MYRTLE  WARBLER,  page  228. 

b.  Length  5*00  inches ;  no  black  on  under  parts  or  white  in  the  tail ;  yel- 
low extending  along  the  whole  sides  ;  back  olive-green,  iris  white ; 
haunts  thickets  ;  call,  an  emphatic  "  Who  are  you,  eh  ? " ;  May  to  Oct. 

WHITE-EYED  VIREO,  page  222. 

c.  Length  5-25  inches ;  tail  and  wings  banded  with  yellow,  showing 
conspicuously  in  flight ;  haunts  woodland ;  movements  active,  much 
in  the  air,  tail  frequently  spread ;  May  to  Oct.      KEDSTART,  page  230. 

JB.  No  yellow  on  sides. 

a.  Length  6*75  inches ;  a  yellow  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye ;  crown 
black,  with  a  white  stripe  through  its  center ;  haunts  in  and  about 
thickets  and  bushy  woodlands  ;  song,  a  high,  clear,  musical  whistle; 
call-note,  chink WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW,  page  188. 

b.  Length  4-00  inches  ;  a  yellow,  or  yellow  and  orange  crown-patch,  bor- 
dered by  black  ;  flits  restlessly  about  outer  limbs  of  trees  and  bushes  ; 
note,  a  fine  ti-ti ;  Oct.  to  Apl.     GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET,  page.  251. 

8.  Throat  neither  yellow  nor  white. 

A.  Length  12-00  inches  ;  white  rump  and  yellow  in  wings  showing  con- 
spicuously in  flight ;  a  black  breast-band  ;  note,  a  loud  Tcee-yer. 

FLICKER,  page  140. 

B.  Length  9-00  inches ;  crested  ;  breast  ashy,  belly  yellow  ;  tail-feathers 
largely  pale  brownish  red  ;  haunts  upper  branches  in  woodland  ;  note, 
a  loud  questioning  or  grating  whistle;  May  to  Sept. 

CRESTED  FLYCATCHER,  page  152. 

C.  Length  7'50  inches  ;  throat  and  head  black  ;  breast,  belly,  and  lower 
back  deep  orange ;  haunts  fruit  and  shade  trees  ;  song,  a  loud,  ringing 
whistle ;  May  to  Sept BALTIMORE  ORIOLE,  page  164. 

D.  Length  7*20  inches ;  crested ;  grayish  brown ;  a  black  line  through 
the  eye  ;  tail  tipped  with  yellow  ;  generally  seen  in  small  flocks  ;  note 
thin  and  weak CEDAB  WAXWING,  page  216. 


FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS.  79 

II.  With  red  in  the  plumage. 

1.  With  red  on  the  under  parts. 

A.  Throat  red. 

a.  Length  7"25  inches ;  wings  and  tail  black ;  rest  of  plumage  bright 
scarlet ;  call-note,  chip-chirr ;  May  to  Sept. 

SCARLET  TANAGER,  page  211. 

b.  Length  6-20  inches ;  dull,  pinkish  red,  wings  and  tail  brownish ;  fre- 
quently seen  feeding  on  buds  or  blossoms ;  call-note,  a  sharp  chink, 
often  uttered  during  flight ;  song,  a  sweet,  flowing  warble. 

PURPLE  FINCH,  page  200. 

c.  Length  6-20  inches ;  dull  red  or  green  tinged  with  red ;  mandibles 
crossed ;  generally  seen  in  flocks ;  feeds  on  pine  cones. 

AM.  CROSSBILL,  page  196. 

d.  Length  5-30  inches;  a  red  crown-cap;  back  streaked  black  and 
brown ;  breast  rosy ;  feeds  on  seeds  or  catkins ;  Nov.  to  Mch. 

REDPOLL,  page  194. 

B.  Throat  black. 

a.  Length  8'00  inches;    breast  rose-red,  rest  of  plumage  black  and 
white ;  song  loud  and  musical ;  call-note,  peek ;  May  to  Sept. 

ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK,  page  202. 

b.  Length  8-00  inches ;  a  conspicuous  crest ;  region  about  the  base  of 
the  bill  black ;  rest  of  the  plumage  and   bill  red ;   song,  a  clear 
whistle ;  resident  from  New  York  city  southward. 

CARDINAL,  page  207. 

c.  Length  5-40  inches ;  wings  and  tail  banded  with  orange-red,  showing 
conspicuously  in  flight;  movements  active;  much  in  the  air;  tail 
frequently  spread ;  haunts  woodland ;  May  to  Oct. 

REDSTART,  page  230. 

2.  No  red  on  the  under  parts. 

A.  Length  9-50  inches ;  black  ;  shoulders  red ;  haunts  marshes ;  migrates 
in  flocks;  Mch.  to  Oct RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD,  page  166. 

B.  Length  5-25  inches :  crown-cap  red ;  chin  black ;  rest  of  under  parts 
streaked  with  blackish ;  feeds  on  seeds  and  catkins ;  Nov.  to  Mch. 

REDPOLL  (im.),  page  194. 

(7.  Length  4-00  inches ;  under  parts  whitish ;  back  olive-green ;  a  ruby 
crown-patch  ;  eye-ring  white ;  movements  restless,  wings  flitted  nerv- 
ously ;  call-note,  cack ;  song  remarkably  loud  and  musical ;  Sept.  and 
Oct. ;  Apl.  and  May RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET,  page  252. 

III.  With  blue  in  the  plumage. 

A.  Length  11-50  inches ;  a  conspicuous  crest ;  upper  parts  dull  blue ; 
under  parts  whitish  ;  a  black  patch  on  the  breast. 

BLUE  JAY,  page  163. 

B.  Length  7'00  inches;  upper  parts  bright  blue;  under  parts  cinnamon- 
brown    BLUEBIRD,  page  260. 

C.  Length  5-50  inches ;  entire  plumage  indigo-blue  ;  May  to  Oct. 

INDIGO  BUNTING,  page  206. 

D.  Length  13-00;  bluish  gray;  haunts  near  water;  feeds  on  fish,  which 
it  catches  by  darting  on  them  at  the  surface    .    KINGFISHER,  page  136. 


80  FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS. 

IV.  Plumage  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white. 

1.  Black  and  white  birds. 

A.  Throat  black. 

a.  Length  over  6-00  inches. 

a1.  Entire  under  parts  black;  nape  bufly;  rump  white;  a  musical 
dweller  of  fields  and  meadows ;  frequently  sings  on  the  wing  ;  May 
to  Sept BOBOLINK,  page  170. 

a2.  Breast  rose-red ;  rest  of  the  plumage  black  and  white ;  song 
rapid,  loud  and  musical ;  call-note,  peek ;  a  tree  dweller  in  rather 
open  woodland ;  May  to  Sept. 

ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK,  page  202. 

a».  Sides  reddish  brown ;  rest  of  the  plumage  black  and  white  ;  call- 
note,  chewink  or  towhee  ;  inhabits  the  undergrowth  ;  often  seen  on 
ground  scratching  among  fallen  leaves ;  Apl.  25  to  Oct. 

TOWHEE,  page  204. 

b.  Length  under  6*00  inches. 

bl.  Crown  black ;  cheeks  white ;  back  ashy ;  unstreaked ;  call,  chick- 
a~dee,  or  a  musical,  double-noted  whistle;  a  permanent  resident. 

CHICKADEE,  page  248. 

B.  Throat  and  other  parts  white  or  whitish. 

a.  Length  8-50  inches  ;  upper  parts  blackish  slate-color;  tail  tipped  with 
white ;  a  bird  of  the  air,  catching  its  insect  food  on  the  wing,  and 
occasionally  sallying  forth  from  its  exposed  perch  in  pursuit  of  a  pass- 
ing Crow ;  note,  an  unmusical,  steely  chatter ;  May  to  Sept. 

KINGBIRD,  page  150. 

b.  Length  6'90  inches :  upper  parts  washed  with  rusty ;  generally  seen 
in  flocks;  terrestrial;  Nov.  to  Mch SNOWFLAKE,  page  196. 

2.  No  white  in  the  plumage. 

A.  Length  19-00  inches ;  jet  black AM.  CROW,  page  161. 

B.  Length  12-00  inches ;  black  with  metallic  reflections ;  iris  yellowish ; 
migrates  in  flocks ;  nests  usually  in  colonies  in  coniferous  trees ;  voice 
cracked  and  reedy;  tail  "keeled"  in  short  flights;  a  walker;  Mch.  to 
Nov PURPLE  GRACKLE,  page  168. 

C.  Length  9-50  inches ;  shoulders  red  ;  haunts  marshes  ;  call,  kong-quer- 
ree\  Mch.  to  Oct RED-WINGED  BLACKBIRD,  page  166. 

D.  Length  7'90  inches ;  head  and  neck  coftee-brown ;  frequently  seen  on 
the  ground  near  cattle ;  Mch.  to  Nov COWBIRD,  page  176. 

V.  Birds  not  included  in  the  preceding  sections  (that  is, 
plumage  without  either  yellow,  orange,  red,  or  blue; 
not  conspicuously  black,  or  black  and  white). 

1.  Under  parts  white  or  whitish,  all  one  color,  without  streaks  or  spots. 
A.  Back  without  streaks  or  spots. 

a.  Back  olive-green ;  gleaners,  exploring  the  foliage  for  food  or  flitting 
about  the  outer  branches. 

a1.  Length  6-25  inches ;  a  white  line  over  the  eye  bordered  by  a  nar- 
row black  one ;  cap  gray ;  iris  red ;  song,  a  rambling  recitative :  "  You 
eee  it — you  know  it — do  you  hear  me  ? "  etc. ;  May  to  Oct. 

REP-EYED  VIREO,  page  221, 


FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS.  81 

a2.  Length  5'75  inches ;  a  white  line  ovei-  the  eye  not  bordered  by 
black  ;  prefers  the  upper  branches  of  rows  of  elms  and  other  shade 
trees;  song,  a  rich,  unbroken  warble  with  an  alto  undertone ;  May 
to  Sept .  WABBLING  VIKEO,  page  222. 

a3.  Length  4*00  inches;  no  white  line  over  the  eye;  eye-ring  and 
wing-bars  white ;  a  tiny,  unsuspicious  bird ;  flits  about  the  outer 
branches  of  trees  and  shrubs;  wings  twitched  nervously;  note, 
each;  song,  a  remarkably  loud,  musical  whistle;  Sept.  and  Oct.; 
Apl.  and  May RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET,  page  252. 

b.  Back  olive-green  or  dusky  olive  ;  flycatchers  who  capture  their  prey 
on  the  wing  by  darting  for  it,  and  while  perching  are  quiet  and  erect. 
d1.  Length  TOO  inches;  frequently  found  nesting  under  bridges  or 

about  buildings;  crown  blackish;  tail  wagged  nervously;  notes, 

pee,  pee,  and  pewit-phcebe;  Mch.  to  Oct.  .  .  .  PHCEBE,  page  154. 
b*.  Length  6*50  inches ;  haunts  wooded  growths ;  note,  a  plaintive 

pee-a-wee ;  May  to  Sept WOOD  PEWEE,  page  158. 

b3.  Length  5*40  inches ;  haunts  orchards,  lawns,  and  open  woodlands ; 

note,  chebec,  chebec LEAST  FLYCATCHER,  page  156. 

c.  Back  gray  or  bluish  gray. 

c1.  Length  6'50  inches  ;  a  gray,  crested  bird ;  forehead  black  ;  no  white 
in  the  tail;  note,  a  whistled  peto,peto,  or  hoarse  de-de-de-de;  resi- 
dent from  New  York  city  southward  .  .  TUFTED  TIT,  page  250. 

ca.  Length  8-50  inches ;  a  white  band  at  the  end  of  the  tail ;  a  con- 
cealed orange-red  crest ;  a  bird  of  the  air,  catching  its  insect  food 
on  the  wing,  and  occasionally  sallying  forth  from  its  exposed  perch 
in  pursuit  of  a  passing  Crow ;  note,  an  unmusical,  steely  chatter ; 
May  to  Sept KINGBIRD,  page  150. 

d.  Back  brown. 

d1.  Length  5-00  inches ;  a  nervous,  restless,  excitable  bird ;  tail  often 
carried  erect ;  song  sweet,  rapid  and  rippling,  delivered  with  aban- 
don ;  Apl.  25  to  Oct HOUSE  WREN,  page  240. 

d*.  Length  12-25  inches;  slim,  brownish  birds  with  long  tails;  flight 
short  and  noiseless ;  perch  in  a  tree,  not  in  an  exposed  position ; 
note,  tut-tut,  cluck-cluck,  and  cow-cow  \  May  to  Oct. 

YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO,  BLACK-BILLED  CUCKOO,  page  132. 
B.  Back  brownish,  streaked. 
a.  Crown  rufous  or  chestnut  without  streaks. 

a1.  Length  5-25  inches ;  bill  black ;  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye ;  a 
familiar  bird  of  lawns  and  door-yards ;  song,  a  monotonous  chippy- 
chippy -chippy ;  Apl.  to  Nov.  .  .  CHIPPING  SPARROW,  page  186. 

a2.  Length  5-70  inches;  bill  reddish  brown,  back  rufous  or  rufous- 
brown  ;  wing-bars  and  eye-ring  whitish  ;  haunts  dry,  bushy  fields 
and  pastures ;  song,  a  musical,  plaintive  cher-wee,  cher-wee,  cher- 
wee,  cheeo,  dee-dee-dee-dee ;  Apl.  to  Nov.  FIELD  SPARROW,  page  182. 

a3.  Length  5-90  inches ;  forehead  black ;  crown  and  wings  chestnut- 
rufous  ;  flanks  pale  grayish  brown ;  haunts  marshes ;  song,  a  rapidly 
repeated  weet-weet-weet,  etc. ;  Mch.  to  Nov. 

SWAMP  SPARROW,  page  180. 

7 


82  FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS. 

b.  Crown  not  rufous  or  chestnut. 

b1.  Length  6'75  inches;  crown  blackish,  with  a  central  whitish  stripe; 
throat  white ;  breast  gray ;  a  yellow  spot  before  the  eye  ;  haunts 
in  and  about  thickets  and  bushy  woodlands ;  song,  a  high,  clear, 
musical  whistle ;  call-note,  chink. 

WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW,  page  188. 

6a.  Length  5*20  inches ;  bill  slender ;  a  white  line  over  the  eye ; 
tail  carried  erect ;  haunts  reedy  marshes ;  call-note  scolding ; 
song  rippling;  May  to  Oct. 

LONG-BILLED  MAKSH  WREN,  page  244. 
2.  Under  parts  white  or  whitish,  streaked  or  spotted. 
A.  Back  streaked. 

a.  Length  6-10  inches  ;  outer  tail-feathers  white,  showing  conspicuously 
when  the  bird  flies ;  haunts  dry  fields  and  roadsides ;  song  musical ; 
Apl.  to  Nov VESPER  SPARROW,  page  184. 

b.  Outer  tail-feathers  not  white. 

b1.  Length  6'30  inches ;  breast  with  numerous  spots  tending  to  form 
one  large  spot  in  its  center;  haunts  on  or  near  the  ground,  generally 
in  the  vicinity  of  bushes;  call-note,  chimp;  song  musical;  a  per- 
manent resident SONG  SPARROW,  page  178. 

b*.  Length  6-35  inches;  breast  grayish  with  one  spot  in  its  center; 

Oct.  to  Apl TREE  SPARROW,  page  194. 

£.  Back  not  streaked ;  breast  spotted. 

a.  Length  11-40  inches ;  tail  5-00  inches ;  wing-bars  white ;  upper  parts, 
wings,  and  tail  bright  cinnamon-brown  ;  haunts  undergrowth  ;  sings 
from  an  exposed  and  generally  elevated  position ;  song  loud,  striking, 
and  continuous ;  Apl.  25  to  Oct.      .    .    BROWN  THRASHER,  page  240. 

b.  Length  under  9-00  inches;  tail  under  3-00  inches;  no  wing-bars; 
back  reddish  or  cinnamon-brown. 

b1.  Length  8-25  inches ;  breast  and  sides  heavily  marked  with  large, 
round,  black  spots ;  head  and  upper  back  brighter  than  lower  back 
and  tail ;  call-note,  a  sharp  pit  or  liquid  quirt ;  May  to  Oct. 

WOOD  THRUSH,  page  256. 

J2.  Length  7'15  inches;  breast  with  wedge-shaped  black  spots;  sides 
unspotted,  washed  with  brownish  ashy  :  tail  reddish  brown,  brighter 
than  back ;  call-note,  a  low  chuck ;  ApL  10  to  May  10 ;  Oct.  and 
Nov HERMIT  THRUSH,  page  258. 

i8.  Length  7'50  inches ;  upper  breast  lightly  spotted  with  small,  wedge- 
shaped,  brownish  spots ;  tail  the  same  color  as  the  back ;  sides  white ; 
call -note,  a  clearly  whistled  whe'eu ;  May  to  Sept. 

WILSON'S  THRUSH,  page  254. 

c.  Length  under  9-00  inches ;  tail  under  3'00  inches ;  no  wing-bars ;  back 


c1.  Length  6-10  inches ;  center  of  crown  pale  brownish  bordered  by 
black;  haunts  on  or  near  the  ground  in  woodland;  a  walker; 
song,  a  ringing  crescendo,  teacher,  teacher,  TEACHER,  TEACHER, 
TEACHER',  May  to  Sept OVEN-BIRD, page  232. 


FIELD  KEY  TO  COMMON  BIRDS.  83 

3.  Under  parts  not  white  or  whitish,  all  one  color,  without  streaks. 

A.  Length  8-50  inches ;  slate-color ;   cap  and  tail  black  ;  inhabits  the 
lower  growth ;  call-note,  nasal ;  song  highly  musical  and  varied ;  Apl. 
25  to  Oct CATBIRD,  page  237. 

B,  Length  7-20  inches;  grayish  brown;  conspicuously  crested;  a  black 
line  through  the  eye ;  tail  tipped  with  yellow  ;  generally  seen  in  small 
flocks ;  note  thin  and  weak CEDAR  WAXWING,  page  216. 

G.  Length  5-50  inches;  under  parts  cream-buff';  a  conspicuous  whitish 
line  over  the  eye  ;  upper  parts  reddish  brown ;  movements  active ;  tail 
carried  erect ;  haunts  lower  growth  ;  notes  loud  and  striking;  resident 
from  New  York  city  southward  ....  CAROLINA  WREN,  page  244. 

4.  Throat  and  upper  breast  black  or  slate-color,  very  different  from  the 
white  or  chestnut  belly. 

A.  Throat  black. 

a.  Belly  and  rump  chestnut;  head,  wings,  and  tail  black;  length  7*30 
inches ;  haunts  orchards  and  shade  trees ;  song  highly  musical ;  May 

to  Sept ORCHARD  ORIOLE,  page  166 

b.  Belly  white;  sides  reddish  brown;  tail  black  and  white ;  length  8*35 
inches ;  haunts  undergrowths ;  call-note,  chewink  or  towTiee ;  Apl.  25 
to  Oct TOWHEE,  page  204. 

£.  Throat  slate-color. 

a.  Back  and  wings  slate-color;  outer  tail-feathers  and  belly  white; 
length  6-25  inches ;  haunts  generally  on  or  near  the  ground  about 
shrubbery  ;  Oct.  to  Apl JUNCO,  page  192. 

5.  Throat  streaked  with  black  and  white  ;  rest  of  under  parts  reddish  brown ; 
upper  parts  grayish  slate-color ;  length  10-00  inches     .    KOBIN,  page  260. 


OUR  COMMON  BIRDS. 
THE  WATER  BIRDS. 

DIVING  BIRDS.     (ORDER  PYGOPODES.) 

GREBES.    (FAMILY  PODICIPID^E.) 

THE  study  of  water  birds  requires  special  advantages 
and  equipments,  among  which  are  a  suitable  location, 
much  time,  and  a  gun.  Our  coasts  and  shores  are  be- 
coming so  popular  as  "  resorts  "  that  many  of  the  former 
haunts  of  waterfowl  are  now  thickly  populated,  and  the 
birds  are  comparatively  rare.  Furthermore,  the  'larger 
number  of  our  water  birds  nest  in  the  far  North  and 
winter  in  the  South,  visiting  the  Middle  States  only  while 
on  their  migrations.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  if  we 
would  become  familiar  with  these  birds,  we  must  devote 
ourselves  especially  to  their  pursuit. 

There  are,  however,  some  species,  notably  those  which 

frequent  bodies  of  fresh  water  and  nest  in  this  latitude, 

Pied-Wiled  Grebe      which  deserve  to  be  ranked  among  our 

Podiiymbus  podiceps.    commoner  birds.     Of  these,  one  of  the 

best   known,  by  name  at  least,  is  the 

Pied-billed  Grebe,  whose  aquatic  powers  have  given  it 

the  expressive  title  of  Hell-diver. 

Under  favorable  conditions  this  little  Grebe  may  breed 
anywhere  from  the  Argentine  Republic  to  British  Amer- 
ica, but  in  the  Middle  States  it  occurs  chiefly  as  a  spring 
and  fall  migrant.  When  nesting,  a  quiet,  reedy  pond  or 
lake  is  chosen  for  a  home,  the  nest  being  made  on  a  pile 
of  decaying  vegetation.  The  eggs,  four  to  eight  in  num- 
ber, are  dull  white,  more  or  less  stained  by  the  nesting 
material,  which  the  parent  bird  rarely  fails  to  place  over 

84 


PLATE  II. 

PIED-BILLED  GREBE. 

Length,  13'50  inches.  Summer  plumage,  upper  parts  blackish  brown  ;  throat 
and  spot  on  bill  black  ;  fore  neck  brownish,  rest  of  under  parts  grayish 
white.  Winter  plumage,  similar,  but  without  black  on  throat  or  bill. 


86  LOON. 

them  when  leaving  the  nest.  The  young  are  born  covered 
with  down  and  can  swim  at  birth.  The  Pied -billed 
Grebe  is  one  of  our  most  aquatic  birds.  When  pursued, 
it  prefers  diving  to  flight,  and  the  marvelous  rapidity 
with  which  it  can  disappear  from  the  surface  of  the 
water,  to  reappear  in  a  quite  unexpected  place,  justifies 
its  reliance  on  its  own  natatorial  powers.  It  can  swim 
under  water  with  only  its  bill  exposed,  when  it  becomes 
practically  invisible. 

When  on  land  Grebes  progress  awkwardly.  They 
can,  it  is  said,  stand  erect  on  their  toes,  but,  when  resting, 
support  themselves  on  the  whole  length  of  the  foot  or 
tarsus  (see  Fig.  8,  the  Great  Auk). 

On  the  wing  Grebes  resemble  small  Ducks,  but  their 
pointed  bill  and  their  feet  stretched  out  behind  the  rudi- 
mentary tail  will  serve  to  distinguish  them. 

LOONS.    (FAMILY  URINATORID^E.) 

The  Loon,  like  its  small  relative  the  Grebe,  is  known 

to  almost  every  one  by  name,  but  only  those  who  have 

Loon  visited  its  summer  haunts  among  the 

Urinator  imber.       Northern  lakes  and  heard  its  wild  call 

Plate  in.  can  be  gaid  to  know  it      Nuttall  writes 

of  its  cry  as  "the  sad  and  wolfish  call  of  the  solitary 
Loon,  which,  like  a  dismal  echo,  seems  slowly  to  invade 
the  ear,  and,  rising  as  it  proceeds,  dies  away  in  the  air." 
It  "  may  be  heard  sometimes  for  two  or  three  miles,  when 
the  bird  itself  is  invisible,  or  reduced  almost  to  a  speck 
in  the  distance."  The  Loon  is  as  aquatic  in  habits  as  the 
Grebe,  but  is  much  stronger  on  the  wing.  It  migrates 
by  day,  and  probably  also  by  night,  and  we  may  some- 
times see  it  passing  over — a  large,  ducklike  bird — in 
March  and  October. 

When  on  land,  it  is  nearly  helpless,  progressing  awk- 


LOON. 

Length,  32.00  inches.  Summer  plumage,  upper  parts  and  fore  neck  black 
and  white  ;  breast  and  belly  white.  Winter  plumage,  upper  parts  dark 
grayish  ;  under  parts  white. 

87 


88  HERRING  GULL. 

wardly  by  the  use  of  feet,  wings,  and  bill.  For  this  rea- 
son it  nests  near  the  water's  edge,  often  where  it  can 
slide  from  the  eggs  directly  into  its  true  element.  The 
nest  is  a  slight  depression  in  the  earth,  in  which  are  laid 
two  elliptical  eggs,  in  color  olive-brown,  slightly  spotted 
with  blackish. 


LONG- WINGED  SWIMMERS.     (ORDER  LONGIPENNES.) 

GULLS  AND  TERNS.     (FAMILY  LARIDJE.) 

No  birds  are  more  widely  distributed  than  the  Gulls 
and  Terns.     Some  species  are  pelagic,  visiting  the  land 

Herring  Gull          On^  at  *On£  mterva^s  an(l  when  nest- 

Larus  argentatus         ing ;  others  live  along  the  coast,  and 

smithsonianus.  several  species  resort  to  inland  waters. 

Plate  IV.  A ,  i         -,       ,  , 

About  one  hundred  species  are  known, 
fifty  being  Gulls  and  fifty  Terns.  The  former  are,  as  a 
rule,  larger,  stouter  birds  than  the  latter,  and,  generally 
speaking,  are  more  maritime.  The  commonest  of  the  ten 
species  found  in  the  Eastern  States  is  the  Herring  Gull. 
It  nests  from  Maine  northward,  and  is  found  southward 
along  our  coast  from  October  1  to  April.  This  is  the 
Gull  we  see  in  such  numbers  in  our  bays  and  harbors, 
flying  gracefully  and  apparently  aimlessly  about,  but  in 
reality  ever  keeping  its  bright  black  eyes  fixed  on  the 
water  in  search  of  some  floating  morsel,  which  it  deftly 
picks  from  the  surface.  It  frequently  follows  vessels, 
hanging  over  the  stern  day  after  day,  and  deserting  its 
post  only  to  feed  on  scraps  thrown  overboard  from  the 
galley.  There  are  said  to  be  reliable  records  of  these 
birds  following  the  same  vessel  from  the  Irish  coast  to 
New  York  Harbor. 

Gulls  do  excellent  service  in  devouring  much  refuse 
that  would  otherwise  be  cast  ashore  to  decay ;  but,  useful 


PLATE  IV. 


HERRING  GULL. 

Length,  24'00  inches.  Adult,  back  and  wings  pearl-gray  ;  end  of  primaries 
marked  with  black  ;  rest  of  plumage  white.  Young,  dark  grayish,  primaries 
and  tail  brownish  black. 

PETRELS. 
Length,  7'50  inches.    Black,  upper  tail-coverts  white. 


90  COMMON  TERN. 

as  they  are  as  scavengers,  I  feel  that  their  place  in  Nature 
is  to  animate  the  barren  wastes  of  the  sea.  How,  when 
at  sea,  the  presence  of  a  single  Gull  changes  the  whole 
aspect  of  Nature  !  The  great  expanse  of  water,  which 
before  was  oppressive  in  its  dreary  lifelessness,  is  trans- 
formed by  the  white-winged  Gulls  into  a  scene  of  rare 
beauty.  Every  voyager,  be  he  naturalist  or  not,  admires 
their  grace  of  form  and  motion.  They  seem  born  of  the 
waves,  and  as  much  a  part  of  the  ocean  as  the  foamy 
whitecaps  themselves. 

The  beautiful  Terns  or  Sea  Swallows  are  even  more 
graceful  than  the  Gulls.  They  are  slenderer  birds,  lighter 
Common  Tern,  an(^  more  active  on  the  wing,  with  long, 
Stema  Urundo.  forked  tails  and  pointed  bills.  They 
Plate  x.  arrive  from  the  South  in  May  and  re- 

main until  September,  nesting  in  colonies. 

Terns  are  littoral  rather  than  pelagic,  seldom  being 
found  far  from  the  shore.  Like  the  Gulls,  they  seem  so 
in  harmony  with  their  surroundings  that  no  coast  view  is 
perfect  from  which  the  Terns  are  missing.  They  add 
the  requisite  touch  of  life,  and  make  still  more  impressive 
the  thunder  of  the  surf  dashing  over  rocks  or  curling  in 
long,  combing  waves  on  the  beach. 

During  recent  years  these  birds  have  been  killed  in 
such  numbers  for  millinery  purposes  that  on  the  middle 
Atlantic  coast  the  only  survivors  exist  on  three  or  four 
uninhabited  islets.  If  one  protests  against  the  merciless 
destruction  of  these  exquisite  creatures  the  excuse  is, 
"  Well,  what  good  are  they  ? " — an  answer  betraying  such 
an  utter  lack  of  appreciation  of  beauty  that  explanation 
seems  hopeless.  But  can  we  not  learn,  before  it  is  too 
late,  that  these  birds  are  even  more  deserving  of  protec- 
tion than  the  works  of  art  we  guard  so  zealously  2 


PETRELS.  91 

TUBE-NOSED  SWIMMERS.     (ORDER  TUBINARES.) 

PETRELS.     (FAMILY  PROCELLARIID^E.) 

Petrels,  or  "  Mother  Carey's  Chickens,"  are  true  chil- 
dren of  the  sea.  Their  home  is  the  ocean,  and  they  come 
to  land  only  when  nesting.  To  the 
PiatTiv  landsman,  therefore,  they  are  strangers, 

but  to  most  people  who  have  been  to 
sea  they  are  known  as  the  little,  white-rumped  swallow- 
like  birds  who  on  tireless  wing  follow  in  the  wake  of  the 
ship  day  after  day,  patiently  waiting  for  the  food  which 
experience  tells  them  will  be  thrown  overboard. 

Two  species  of  Petrels  are  found  off  our  coasts,  Wil- 
son's and  Leach's.  The  former  has  a  yellow  area  in  the 
webs  of  the  toes  and  a  square  tail,  while  Leach's  Petrel  has 
the  webs  of  the  toes  wholly  black  and  a  slightly  forked 
tail.  These  differences,  however,  would  not  be  appre- 
ciable at  a  distance.  Wilson's  Petrel  nests  in  certain 
islands  of  the  southern  hemisphere  in  February,  and 
later  migrates  northward,  reaching  our  latitude  in  May 
and  spending  the  summer,  or  what  in  fact  is  its  winter, 
in  the  North  Atlantic.  It  is,  therefore,  probably  the 
Petrel  most  frequently  seen  by  transatlantic  voyagers  at 
this  season. 

Leach's  Petrel  nests  on  our  coasts  from  Maine  north- 
ward, arriving  from  the  South  in  May.  The  nest  is 
made  in  a  burrow  in  the  ground  or  beneath  a  rock,  and 
a  single  white  egg  is  laid.  Generally  one  of  the  birds 
spends  the  day  on  the  nest  while  its  mate  is  at  sea,  but 
at  night  the  incubating  bird  leaves  the  nest,  its  place  being 
taken  probably  by  the  one  who  has  been  feeding  during 
the  day. 


92  DUCKS. 


LAMELLIROSTRAL  SWIMMERS.     ORDER  ANSERES.) 
DUCKS,  GEESE,  AND  SWANS.    (FAMILY  ANATIDJE.) 

This  family  contains  some  two  hundred  species,  and 
is  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  includes  five 
subfamilies :  the  Mergansers  (Mergince),  or  Fish-eating 
Ducks ;  the  Pond  or  River  Ducks  (Anatince\  the  Bay  or 
Sea  Ducks  (FuliguUncB) ;  the  Geese  (Anserine^)  ;  and 
the  Swans  (Cygnince). 

Ducks,  like  all  hunted  birds,  are  exceedingly  wild3 
and  comparatively  few  species  will  come  within  reach  of 
the  student's  opera-glass.  The  group  may  therefore  be 
reviewed  briefly.  The  Mergansers  or  Shelldrakes,  num- 
bering three  species,  have  narrow,  serrate  bills  which 
enable  them  to  hold  the  fish  they  pursue  and  catch 
under  water  (see  Fig.  18). 

The  River  Ducks  have  little  or  no  lobe  or  flap  on  the 
hind  toe.  In  this  group  belong  our  Mallard,  Widgeon, 
Pintail,  Blue- winged  and  Green -winged 
Teals,  Black  Duck,  Wood  Duck,  and 
others.  All  but  the  last  two  nest  in 
the  North  and  are  found  in  our  latitude  only  during 
their  spring  and  fall  migrations,  or,  if  the  weather  be 
mild,  in  the  winter.  The  Black  Duck  and  Wood  Duck 
nest  rarely  in  the  Middle  States. 

All  these  birds  feed  in  shallow  water  by  "  dabbling  " 
or  "  tipping,"  terms  which  will  be  readily  understood  by 
any  one  who  has  watched  domesticated  Ducks  feeding. 

The  Bay  and  Sea  Ducks,  on  the  contrary,  are  divers, 
and  may  descend  to  the  bottom  in  water  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  depth.  They  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  River  Ducks  by  the  presence  of  a 
flap  or  lobe  on  the  hind  toe.  The  commoner  members  of 


PLATE  V. 


1  WOOD  DUCK. 

2  PINTAIL. 

3  MALLARD. 


4  GREEN-WINGED  TEAL. 

5  BLUE-WINGED  TEAL. 

6  CANADA  GEESE. 


94:  DUCKS  AND  GEESE. 

this  subfamily  are  the  Redhead,  Canvasback,  Scaup  or 
Broadbill,  Whistler,  Bufflehead,  Old  Squaw,  Eider,  three 
species  of  Scoters  or  "  Coots  "  and  Ruddy  Duck.  These 
are  all  northern-breeding  birds  who  visit  the  waters  of 
our  bays  and  coasts  during  their  migrations  or  in  the 
winter. 

The  bill  in  both  River  and  Bay  Ducks  has  a  series  of 
gutters  on  either  side  which  serve  as  strainers.  The 
birds  secure  a  large  part  of  their  food — of  small  mollusks, 
crustaceans,  and  seeds  of  aquatic  plants — from  the  bot- 
tom, taking  in  with  it  a  quantity  of  mud,  which  they 
get  rid  of  by  closing  the  bill  and  forcing  it  out  through 
the  strainers,  the  food  being  retained. 

Geese  are  more  terrestrial  than  Ducks,  and,  though 
they  feed  under  water  by  tipping,  often  visit  the  land  to 
procure  grass,  corn,  or  cereals,  which  they  readily  nip  off. 
The  white-faced,  black-necked  Canada  Goose  is  our  only 
common  species.  Its  long  overland  journeys,  while 
migrating,  render  it  familiar  to  many  who  have  seen  it 
only  in  the  air.  It  migrates  northward  in  March  and 
April  and  returns  in  October  and  November,  breeding 
from  the  Northern  States  northward  and  wintering  from 
New  Jersey  southward. 

The  two  Swans,  Whistling  and  Trumpeter,  found  in 
North  America,  are  generally  rare  on  the  Atlantic 
coast. 


HERONS,   STORKS,   IBISES,   ETC.     (ORDER 
HERODIONES.) 

HERONS  AND  BITTERNS.     (FAMILY  ARDEID^.) 

OF  the  seventy-five  known  members  of  this  family 
fourteen  inhabit  eastern  North  America.  Most  of  these 
are  Southern  in  distribution,  only  six  or  seven  species 
regularly  visiting  the  Northern  States.  Their  large  size 


GREAT  BLUE   HERON.  95 

renders  Herons  conspicuous,  and,  though  worthless  as 
food,  few  so-called  sportsmen  can  resist  the  temptation 
of  shooting  at  them  when  opportunity  offers.  Several 
of  the  Southern  species,  notably  the  Snowy  Heron  and 
White  Egret,  are  adorned  during  the  nesting  season  with 
the  beautiful  "  aigrette  "  plumes  which  are  apparently  so 
necessary  a  part  of  woman's  headgear  that  they  will  go 
out  of  fashion  only  when  the  birds  go  out  of  existence. 
One  can  not  blame  the  plume  hunters,  who  are  generally 
poor  men,  for  killing  birds  whose  plumes  are  worth  more 
than  their  weight  in  gold — the  blame  lies  in  another 
quarter.  But  I  have  no  words  with  which  to  express 
my  condemnation  of  the  man  who  kills  one  of  these 
birds  wantonly. 

The   presence   of    a    stately   Great   Blue   Heron   or 
"  Crane "  adds   an   element  to  the  landscape  which  no 

Great  Blue  Heron,  work  of  man  can  equal.  Its  grace  of 
Ardea  iierodias.  form  and  motion,  emphasized  by  its 
Plate  vi.  large  size,  is  a  constant  delight  to  the 

eye ;  it  is  a  symbol  of  the  wild  in  Nature ;  one  never 
tires  of  watching  it.  "What  punishment,  then,  is  severe 
enough  for  the  man  who  robs  his  fellows  of  so  pure 
a  source  of  enjoyment  ?  A  rifle  ball  turns  this  noble 
creature  into  a  useless  mass  of  flesh  and  feathers ;  the 
loss  is  irreparable.  Still,  we  have  no  law  to  prevent  it. 
Herons  are  said  to  devour  large  numbers  of  small  fish. 
But  is  not  the  laborer  worthy  of  his  hire  ?  Are  the  fish 
more  valuable  than  this,  one  of  the  grandest  of  birds  ? 

The  Great  Blue  Heron  breeds  throughout  North 
America,  but  there  are  now  only  a  few  localities  in  the 
northeastern  States  where  it  may  be  found  nesting.  We 
usually  see  it,  therefore,  as  a  migrant  in  April  and  May, 
and  from  August  to  November. 

The  Little  Green  Heron  is  the  smallest,  as  the  Great 
Blue  Heron  is  the  largest,  of  our  Herons.  Its  small 


96  HERONS. 

size,  preference  for  wooded  regions  instead  of  marshes, 

and  habit  of  nesting  alone,  not  in  flocks,  like  most  Her- 

Little  Green  Heron,    ons>  accounts  for  its   being   relatively 

Ardea  virescens.  common.  It  arrives  from  the  South 
Plate  vi.  about  Aprii  20,  and  nests  early  in 

May.  The  nest,  as  is  usual  in  this  family,  is  a  rude 
platform  of  sticks  and  is  placed  in  a  bush  or  the  lower 
branch  of  a  tree,  often  overhanging  the  water.  The  eggs 
number  from  three  to  six,  and  in  color  are  pale  green- 
ish blue.  The  young,  although  born  with  a  covering  of 
hairlike  feathers,  are  quite  helpless  and  are  reared  in 
the  nest.  Adults  have  the  crown  and  back  dark,  glossy 
green,  the  neck  reddish  brown. 

The  notes  of  this  little  Heron  are  a  clear  whistle  and 
a  harsh  squawk,  uttered  when  it  is  frightened.  It  then 
seeks  refuge  by  alighting  in  a  distant  bush  or  tree,  and 
with  upstretched  neck  and  twitching  tail  watches  the 
intruder. 

The  Night  Heron,  or  Squawk,  doubtless  owes  its 
escape  from  the  fate  of  most  Herons  to  its  nocturnal 

habits.      These  birds  arrive  from  the 
Black-crowned  ~      ,,     .       A       .,         ,  .  ,.,    ~ 

Ni  ht  Heron    South  in  April  and  remain  until  Oc- 

Xycticorax  nycticorax  tober.     They  nest  in  large  colonies,  a 

nasviui.  rookery  not  far  from  New  York  city 

being  inhabited  by  at  least  one  thousand 

pairs.     It  is  in  a  low,  wooded  tract,  and  the  nests  are  built 

in  the  trees  at  an  average  height  of  thirty  feet.     The  eggs 

number  four  to  six,  and  in  color  are  pale  bluish  green. 

At  night,  while  feeding,  these  Herons  are  doubtless 
distributed  over  a  wide  area.  When  flying,  they  often 
utter  a  loud  squawk,,  the  origin  of  one  of  their  common 
names.  It  is  a  surprising  sound  when  heard  near  by  at 
night,  and  has  doubtless  aroused  the  curiosity  of  many 
persons  who  live  near  a  line  of  flight  followed  by  these 
birds  in  going  to  and  from  their  nests. 


Htvon 


•Jt 


PLATE  VI. 

LITTLE  GREEN  HERON. 
(Length,  1TQQ  inches.) 


BLACK-CROWNED  NIGHT  HERON 
( YOUNG  AND  ADULT). 
(Length,  2U'00  inches.) 
GREAT  BLUE    HERON. 
(Length,  k5'00  inches.) 
97 


98  AMERICAN  BITTERN. 

The  Bittern,  or  Stake  Driver,  is  a  summer  resident  of 
our  larger  marshes,  arriving  early  in  April  and  remaining 
American  Bittern,  until  October.  Though  by  no  means 
Botaurus  lentiyinosus.  common,  its  notes  are  so  loud  and  re- 
Plate  vii.  markable  that  even  a  single  calling 
bird  is  more  likely  to  attract  attention  than  many  smaller 
abundant  species.  Under  favorable  circumstances  these 
notes  may  be  heard  for  at  least  three  fourths  of  a  mile. 
They  are  of  two  kinds.  One  is  described  as  the  "  pump- 
ing "  call,  and  is  generally  written  pump-er-lunk,  pump- 
er-lunk,pump-erlunk,  while  the  other  is  deceptively  like 
the  sound  produced  by  driving  a  stake  in  the  mud.  Mr. 
Bradford  Torrey,  one  of  the  few  ornithologists  who  has 
observed  the  bird  while  it  was  uttering  these  singular 
cries,  tells  us  (The  Auk,  vi,  1889,  p.  1)  that  they  are 
attended  by  violent,  convulsive  movements  of  the  head 
and  neck,  which  suggest  the  contortions  of  a  seasick 
person,  but  that  the  bird's  bill  is  neither  immersed  in 
water  nor  plunged  in  the  mud,  as  has  been  popularly 
supposed. 


CRANES,   BAILS,   ETC.     (ORDER  PALUDICOL-ffi.) 

KAILS  AND  COOTS.    (FAMILY  RALLID^;.) 

RAILS  are  marsh-inhabiting  birds,  more  often  heard 
than  seen.  They  are  very  reluctant  to  take  wing,  and 
when  pursued  seek  safety  by  running  or  hiding  rather 
than  by  flying.  When  flushed,  they  go  but  a  short  dis- 
tance, and  with  dangling  legs  soon  drop  back  into  the 
grasses. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  eighty  members  of  this 
family,  fourteen  inhabit  North  America  and  eight  visit 
the  northeastern  United  States.  Only  three  or  four  of 
these,  however,  are  abundant,  the  most  numerous  and 


PLATE  VII. 

AMERICAN   BITTERN. 

Length,  28'00  inches.  A  black  streak  on  neck  ;  body  brown  and  buff ;  pri- 
maries slate-color. 

SORA. 

Length,  8'50  inches.  Adult,  upper  parts  olive-brown,  black,  and  white  ; 
throat  and  face  black,  breast  slate,  belly  white,  flanks  black  and  white. 
Young,  similar,  but  face,  throat,  nnd  breast  white,  washed  with  brownish. 

99 


100  BAILS  AND  COOT. 

generally  distributed  species  being  our  Sora  or  Carolina 
Hail,  so  well  known  to  sportsmen.  This  bird  passes 
Sora  us  in  the  spring  in  April  and  nests  from 

Porzana  Carolina.  Massachusetts  northward.  It  returns 
in  August  and  lingers  in  our  wild-rice 
marshes  until  October.  During  the  nesting  season  it 
has  two  calls — a  whistled,  ker-wee,  and  a  high,  rolling 
whinny.  In  the  fall  it  utters  a  Icuk  or  peep  when  dis- 
turbed. 

There  is  no  sexual  difference  in  color  in  this  species, 
but  birds  of  the  year  lack  the  black  about  the  base  of 
the  bill  and  on  the  throat,  and  have  the  breast  washed 
with  cinnamon. 

Our  other  species  of  Rail  are  the  King,  Yellow,  and 
Little  Black  Rail,  all  of  which  are  rare  ;  the  Virginia  Rail, 

Clapper  Bail  which  is  more  common,  and  the  Clap- 
Raiius  crepitans.  per  Rail  or  Marsh  Hen,  an  abundant 

Plate  viii.  species  in  some  of  the  salt  marshes 
along  our  coasts  from  Long  Island  southward.  It  is  a 
noisy  bird  with  a  peculiar  cackling  call  which  it  utters 
in  a  way  that  suggests  the  sound  produced  by  some  auto- 
matic toys. 

Its  nest  is  made  of  dried  grasses,  the  surrounding 
marsh  grass  being  slightly  arched  over  it.  Eight  to 
twelve  buffy,  speckled  eggs  are  laid,  a  number  which, 
in  connection  with  the  abundance  of  the  bird,  has  led  to 
the  persistent  robbing  of  its  nests  by  men  who  sell  the 
eggs  for  food.  As  a  result  of  this  practice  the  birds 
have  greatly  decreased  in  numbers  during  recent  years. 

The  Coot,  Mud-hen,  or  Crow-duck  differs  from  the 

Rails  in  having  lobed  toes  (see  Fig.  12)  and  in  being 

American  Coot        ni ore  aquatic.     In  fact,  it  is  more  like 

Fulica  americana.      a  Duck  in  habits  than  like  a  Rail,  but 

Plate  viii.  itg  p0inted,  white-tipped  bill  will  pre- 
vent its  being  mistaken  for  one. 


PLATE  VIII. 

AMERICAN  COOT. 

Length,  15  00  inches.    Head  and  neck  blackish,  body  slate ;  under  tail-cor- 
erts,  tips  of  secondaries,  and  end  of  bill  white. 

CLAPPER  RAIL. 

Length,  14'50  inches.     Upper  parts  pale  greenish  olive  and  gray;    throat 
white,  breast  pale  cinnamon,  flanks  gray  and  white. 

101 


102  WOODCOCK. 

It  rarely  breeds  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  is  some- 
times common  on  our  marsh -bordered  streams  in  the 
fall. 


SHORE  BIRDS.     (ORDER  LIMICOL^.) 

SNIPES  AND  SANDPIPERS.     (FAMILY  SCOLOPACID^E.) 

THE  successful  pursuit  of  shore  birds  on  our  coasts 
requires  a  special  knowledge  of  their  notes  and  habits. 
Thirty  of  the  one  hundred  known  species  visit  us  annu- 
ally, but  of  this  number  only  two  or  three  nest,  most  of 
the  others  migrating  in  May  to  their  breeding  grounds  in 
the  far  North.  The  return  migration  takes  place  during 
July,  August,  and  September,  but  with  some  exceptions 
these  birds  are  seen  only  by  those  who  hunt  them  sys- 
tematically with  decoys. 

Only  these  exceptions  and  our  summer  resident  species 
will  be  mentioned  here.  Commonest  among  the  latter 

Woodcock  ig  ^ie  Woodcock,  a  bird  so  unlike  other 

PhiioMa  minor.  Snipe  in  his  choice  of  haunts  that  he 
Figs.  9  and  19.  seems  quite  out  of  place  in  this  family. 
Nor  is  he,  strictly  speaking,  a  summer  resident,  for  there 
are  only  three  months  in  the  year  when  the  Woodcock 
is  not  with  us.  He  comes  in  March  as  soon  as  the  frost- 
bound  earth  will  permit  him  to  probe  for  his  diet  of 
worms,  and  he  remains  until  some  December  freeze 
drives  him  southward. 

Low,  wet  woods,  where  skunk  cabbage  and  hellebore 
thrive,  or  bush -grown,  springy  runs,  are  the  Woodcock's 
early  haunts.  In  August,  while  molting,  he  often  visits 
cornfields  in  the  bottom  lands,  and  in  the  fall  wooded 
hillsides  are  his  resorts.  But,  wherever  he  is,  the  Wood- 
cock leaves  his  mark  in  the  form  of  "  borings  " — little  holes 
which  dot  the  earth  in  clusters,  and  show  where  the  bird 


SPOTTED  SANDPIPER.  103 

has  probed  for  earthworms  with  his  long,  sensitive  bill, 
the  upper  mandible  of  which,  as  Mr.  Gordon  Trumbull 
has  discovered,  the  bird  can  use  as  a  finger. 

The  Woodcock's  nest  is  made  of  dried  leaves,  and  the 
four  large,  pear-shaped  eggs  are  buff,  spotted  with  shades 
of  reddish  brown.  The  young  are  born  covered  with 
rich  chestnut  and  buff  down,  and  can  run  as  soon  as 
dry. 

As  a  songster  the  Woodcock  is  unique  among  our 
summer  birds.  Ordinarily  sedate  and  dignified,  even 
pompous  in  his  demeanor,  in  the  spring  he  falls  a  victim 
to  the  passion  which  is  accountable  for  so  many  strange 
customs  in  the  bird  world. 

If  some  April  evening  you  visit  the  Woodcock's 
haunts  at  sunset,  you  may  hear  a  loud,  nasal  note  repeated 
at  short  intervals — peent,  peent.  It  resembles  the  call  of 
a  Mghthawk,  but  is  the  Woodcock  sounding  the  first 
notes  of  his  love  song.  He  is  on  the  ground,  and  as  you 
listen,  the  call  ceases  and  the  bird  springs  from  the  ground 
to  mount  skyward  on  whistling  wings.  He  may  rise 
three  hundred  feet,  then,  after  a  second's  pause,  one  hears 
a  twittering  whistle  and  the  bird  shoots  down  steep 
inclines  earthward.  Unless  disturbed,  he  will  probably 
return  to  near  the  spot  from  which  he  started  and  at 
once  resume  his  peenting.  This,  with  the  twittering 
note,  is  vocal ;  the  whistling  sound,  heard  as  the  bird  rises, 
is  produced  by  the  rapid  passage  of  air  through  its  stif- 
fened primaries. 

Our  only  other  common  summer  resident  Snipe  is  the 

Spotted    Sandpiper.      It  frequents  the  shores  of  lakes, 

Spotted  Sandpiper,     Ponds>  and  rivers,   and    is    also   found 

Actitis  mncuiaria.     near  the  sea,  but  wherever  seen  may  be 

Plate  xi.  known  by  its  singular    tipping,  teter- 

ing  motion,  which  has  given  it  the  names  of  Tip-up  and 

Teter  Snipe.     It  is  also  called  Peet-weet,  from  its  sharp 


104  WILSON'S  SNIPE. 

call,  rapidly  repeated  as  it  flies  over  the  water.  After 
gaining  headway  it  sails  for  some  distance,  when  its  wide- 
stretched  wings  show  a  white  bar  or  band. 

The  Spotted  Sandpiper  arrives  from  the  South  late 
in  April  and  remains  until  October.  It  nests  in  the  lat- 
ter half  of  May,  laying  four  pear-shaped  eggs,  in  color 
white  or  buff,  thickly  spotted  and  speckled  with  choco- 
late, chiefly  at  the  larger  end.  The  young,  like  those  of 
all  Snipe,  are  born  with  a  covering  of  downy  feathers, 
and  can  run  as  soon  as  dry.  The  egg  is,  therefore,  large 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bird,  and  measures  1*25  by 
•95  inches.  (See  Fig.  Z±a.) 

Unlike  the  two  preceding  birds,  Wilson's  or  the 
English  Snipe  is  not  a  summer  resident  in  the  Middle 
Wilson's  Snipe  States,  but  as  a  rule  nests  from  north- 
Gailinago  deiicata.  ern  New  England  northward,  though 
Plate  ix.  there  are  records  of  its  breeding  as 

far  south  as  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania.  It  migrates 
northward  in  March  and  April,  and  the  return  journey 
occurs  during  September  and  October.  It  is  not  a  true 
shore  bird,  but  frequents  fresh-water  marshes  and  mead- 
ows, and  in  rainy  April  weather,  when  the  lowlands  be- 
come more  or  less  flooded,  it  may  be  found  in  places  where 
few  persons  would  think  of  looking  for  Snipe. 

Like  the  Woodcock,  Wilson's  Snipe  probes  the  mud 
for  food,  and  when  on  the  ground  among  the  grasses  its 
colors  and  pattern  of  coloration  so  closely  resemble  its 
surroundings  that  it  is  almost  invisible. 

When  flushed,  it  utters  a  startled  scalp,  and  darts 
quickly  into  the  air,  flying  at  first  in  so  erratic  a  manner 
that  it  has  become  famous  among  sportsmen  as  a  diffi- 
cult mark. 

Like  the  Nighthawk,  Wilson's  Snipe  sometimes  dives 
earthward  from  high  in  the  air,  making  as  he  falls  a 
sound  which  Minot  compares  to  that  produced  by  throw- 


PLATE  IX. 

WILSON'S  SNIPE. 

Length,  11.25  inches.    Upper  parts  black,  buff,  and  rusty  ;  throat  and  belly 
white,  rest  of  under  parts  black  and  buff. 

105 


106  SEMIPALMATED  SANDPIPER. 

ing  a  nail  held  crosswise  in  the  hand,  though  it  is  louder 
and  more  full.  This  performance  is  generally  restricted 
to  late  evening  and  early  morning  during  the  spring,  but 
is  occasionally  practiced  in  the  fall. 

Most  of  our  transient  visitant  Snipe  are  true  shore 

birds.    Many  of  them  are  classed  as  game  birds,  and  have 

Semipalmated  now   Become    so    uncommon   that,     as 

Sandpiper,  before  remarked,  it  requires  a  special 

Ereunetes pusiiius. '  knowledge  of  their  ways   in   order  to 

find  them.     But  there  are  some  species 

too  small  to  be  worthy  the  sportsman's  attention,  and  they 

are  often  numerous  on  our  beaches.     They  are  generally 

known  as  Peeps  or  Ox-eyes,  but  in  books  are  termed 

Semipalmated    Sandpipers  —  active   little  fellows,   with 

black,  gray  and  rusty  backs  and  white  under  parts,  who 

run  along  the  shore,  feeding  on  the  small  forms  of  life 

cast  up  by  the  waves.     They  are  sociable  birds,  and  even 

when  feeding  the  members  of  a  flock  keep  together,  while 

when  flying  they  move  almost  as  one  bird. 

These  Sandpipers  visit  us  in  May,  when  journeying  to 
their  summer  homes  within 'the  Arctic  Circle,  and  return 
in  July,  to  linger  on  our  shores  until  October.  Their 
call-note  is  a  cheery,  peeping  twitter,  which  probably 
suggested  one  of  their  common  names. 


PLOVERS.     (FAMILY  CHARADRIID^.) 

Most  Plovers  differ  from  Snipe  in  possessing  three 
instead  of  four  toes,  and  in  having  the  scales  on  the  tarsi 
rounded,  not  square  or  transverse.  Their  bill  is  shorter 
and  stouter  than  that  of  Snipe,  and  they  do  not  probe 
for  food,  but  pick  it  up  from  the  surface. 

Although  several  species  visit  dry  fields  and  uplands, 
they  are  ranked  as  shore  birds  or  bay  birds,  and,  as  with 
Snipe,  the  species  large  enough  to  be  ranked  as  game 


PLATE  X. 

COMMON  TERN. 

(Length,  15'GO  inches.) 

SEMIPALMATED  SANDPIPER.  SEMIPALMATED  PLOVER. 

(Length,  6'30  inches.)  (Length,  6'75  inches.) 

107 


108  PLOVERS. 

have  become  comparatively  rare.  Of  the  one  hundred 
known  species,  six  visit  eastern  North  America — the 
Black-breasted,  Golden,  Piping,  Wilson's,  Semipalmated, 
and  Killdeer  Plovers.  Only  the  last  two  of  these  are 
common  enough  to  deserve  mention  here. 

Killdeer,  The  Killdeer,  with  the  exception  of 

jEgialitis  vodfera.  the  Piping  Plover,  is  the  only  bird  of 

Plate  XL  this  family  that  nest8  ^th  us>     jt  is 

irregularly  distributed  in  the  northeastern  States,  but  its 
noisy  call,  kildee,  kildee,  and  striking  markings  render  it 
a  conspicuous  bird  even  where  it  is  uncommon.  It  fre- 
quents uplands  and  lowlands,  fields  and  shores,  but  prefers 
the  vicinity  of  water.  Its  nest  of  grasses  is  made  on  the 
ground,  and  its  four  eggs  are  whitish,  spotted  and  scrawled 
with  chestnut,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

The  Semipalmated  or  Ring-necked  Plover  looks  like 
a  miniature  of  the  Killdeer,  but,  in  addition  to  other  dif- 

Semipalmated  Plover,  ferences>  has  Onl7  one  band  on  the 
^Egiatitis  breast.  The  male  has  the  upper  parts 

semipaimata.  brownish  gray,  the  under  parts,  nape, 
and  forehead  white,  while  the  breast- 
band,  crown,  and  cheeks  are  black.  In  the  female  these 
black  areas  are  brownish  gray.  This  Plover  visits  our 
shores  and  beaches  during  its  northward  migration  in 
May  and  southward  migration  in  August  and  September. 
Thanks  to  its  small  size,  it  is  not  hunted  as  game,  and 
for  this  reason  is  almost  as  common  as  the  little  Peeps 
or  Ox-eyes,  with  which  it  often  associates.  Its  call  is  a 
simple  but  exceedingly  sweet  and  plaintive  two-noted 
whistle. 


PLATE  XI. 


SPOTTED  SANDPIPER. 
Length,  7.50  inches.    Adult,  upper  parts  brownish  gray  and  black  ;  under 
parts  white  spotted  with  black  ;  a  white  patch  in  wing.     Young,  similar,  but 
without  black. 

KILLDEER. 

Length,  10'50  inches  Upper  parts  brownish  gray,  upper  tail-coverts  rusty  ; 
under  parts  white  ;  two  bands  on  breast,  crown  and  lores  black,  forehead 
and  nape  white. 

109 


THE  LAND   BIRDS. 
GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS.     (ORDER  GALLINJE.) 

BOB-WHITES,  GROUSE,  ETC.     (FAMILY  TETRAONID^E.) 

THIS  is  the  family  of  the  game  birds  —  the  aristocrats 
of  the  bird  world.  They  are  protectively  colored  birds, 
their  rich  brown,  buff,  and  black  plumage  harmoniz- 
ing with  their  surroundings.  Relying  on  their  incon- 
spicuousness,  they  avoid  danger  by  hiding  rather  than  by 
flight,  taking  wing  only  as  a  final  resort.  Then,  with  a 
startling  whir-r-r,  they  spring  into  the  air,  their  short, 
strong  wings  enabling  them  to  reach  their  greatest  speed 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  starting  point. 

One  of  the  best-known  members  of  this  distinguished 
family  is  our  familiar  Bob-white,  the  Quail  of  the  North 
and  Partridge  of  the  South.  The  fact 


tridge,  and  those  who  claim  that  but 
one  of  these  names  is  correct  may  compromise  on  "  Bob- 
white." 

The  Bob-white  inhabits  the  eastern  United  States,  and 
wherever  found  is  resident  throughout  the  year.  The 
sexes  are  much  alike  in  color,  the  only  important  differ- 
ence being  in  the  throat  and  the  line  over  the  eye,  which 
are  white  in  the  male  and  buff  in  the  female. 

No  bird  better  illustrates  the  peculiar  potency  of 
bird  song,  and  the  hopelessness  of  attempting  to  express  its 
charm.  If  I  should  describe  Bob-white's  call  to  a  person 
who  had  never  heard  it,  as  two  ringing  notes,  do  you 
suppose  he  would  have  the  faintest  conception  of  what 

110 


RUFFED  GROUSE.  Ill 

they  mean  to  those  who  love  them  ?  The  promise  of 
Spring,  its  fulfillment  in  summer,  is  clearly  told  in  Bob- 
white's  greeting.  Then,  in  the  autumn,  when  the  mem- 
bers of  a  scattered  bevy  are  signaling  each  other,  their 
sweet  where  are  you  f  where  are  you  f  is  equally  associated 
with  the  season. 

The  Bob- white  nests  about  May  20,  laying  from  ten 
to  eighteen  white  eggs  in  a  nest  on  the  ground. 

The  Ruffed  Grouse,  or  Partridge  of  the  North  and 
Pheasant  of  the  South,  is  properly  a  true  Grouse,  and 
Ruffed  Grouse  can  no^  De  correctly  called  either  Par- 
Bonasa,  umbeiius.  tridge  or  Pheasant.  He  is  a  more 
Plate  xii.  northern  bird  than  the  Bob-white,  be- 

ing found  south  of  Virginia  only  in  the  Alleghanies. 
Requiring  large  tracts  of  woodland  for  his  haunts,  he 
is  less  generally  distributed  and  not  so  common  as  his 
plump  relative. 

I  always  associate  the  Grouse  with  the  astounding 
roar  of  wings  made  by  the  bird  as  he  springs  from  the 
ground  at  my  feet  and  sails  away  through  the  forest.  I 
watch  him  at  first  with  dazed  surprise,  then  with  a  keen 
sense  of  pleasure  in  the  meeting.  One  need  not  be  a 
sportsman  to  appreciate  the  gaminess  of  the  Grouse. 

To  find  a  hen  Grouse  with  young  is  a  memorable 
experience.  While  the  parent  is  giving  us  a  lesson  in 
mother-love  and  bird  intelligence,  her  downy  chicks  are 
teaching  us  facts  in  protective  coloration  and  heredity. 
How  the  old  one  limps  and  flutters  !  She  can  barely 
drag  herself  along  the  ground.  But  while  we  are  watch- 
ing her,  what  has  become  of  the  ten  or  a  dozen  little 
yellow  balls  we  almost  stepped  on  ?  Not  a  feather  do 
we  see,  until,  poking  about  in  the  leaves,  we  find  one 
little  chap  hiding  here  and  another  squatting  there,  all 
perfectly  still,  and  so  like  the  leaves  in  color  as  to  be 
nearly  invisible. 


112.  MOURNING  DOVE. 

The  drumming  of  the  Grouse,  as  described  by  Mr. 
Thompson,  begins  "  with  the  measured  thump  of  the  big 
drum,  then  gradually  changes  and  dies  away  in  the  rum- 
ble of  the  kettle-drum.  It  may  be  briefly  represented 
thus  :  Thump — thump — thump — thump,  thump  ;  thump, 
thump — rup  rup  rup  rup,  r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r.  The  sound  is 
produced  by  the  male  bird  beating  the  air  with  his  wings 
as  he  stands  firmly  braced  on  some  favorite  low  perch." 

The  Ruffed  Grouse  makes  its  leaf -lined  nest  usually 
at  the  base  of  a  tree  or  stump,  and  the  eight  to  fourteen 
buff  eggs  are  laid  early  in  May. 


PIGEONS  AND  DOVES.     (ORDER  COLTJMBJE.) 

PIGEONS  AND  DOVES.    (FAMILY  COLUMBID^E.) 

THE  three  hundred  species  belonging  in  this  order  are 
distributed  throughout  most  parts  of  the  world,  but  only 
two  of  them  are  found  in  the  northeastern  States.  One 
of  these,  however,  the  Wild  Pigeon,  is  now  so  rare  that 
its  occurrence  is  worthy  of  note.  Less  than  fifty  years 
ago  it  was  exceedingly  abundant,  but  its  sociable  habits 
of  nesting  and  flying  in  enormous  flocks  made  it  easy 
prey  for  the  market  hunter,  and,  with  that  entire  disre- 
gard of  consequences  which  seems  to  characterize  man's 
action  when  his  greed  is  aroused,  the  birds  were  pur- 
sued so  relentlessly  that  they  have  been  practically  ex- 
terminated. 

The  Mourning  or  Carolina  Dove  has  happily  beep 
more   fortunate.      Nesting    in    isolated    pairs,  and  not 
Mourning  Dove,       gathering  in  very  large  flocks,  it  has 
Zenaidura  macroura.    escaped  the  market  hunter. 

Plate  XIII.  Thig  -D()ve   ig  found  throughout  the 

greater  part  of  North  America.     In  the  latitude  of  New 
York  it  is  a  summer  resident,  arriving  in  March  and 


PLATE  XII. 

RUFFED  GROUSE. 

Length,  1?'00  inches.  Mate,  neck  tufts  long,  black  ;  upper  parts  and  tail 
gray  or  rusty,  black  and  buff  ;  under  parts  white,  black  and  rusty.  Female, 
similar,  but  with  neck  tufts  no  longer  than  adjoining  feathers. 

113 
9 


TURKEY  VULTURE. 

remaining  until  November.  In  April  we  may  hear  its 
soft,  sweet  call,  coo-o-o,  ah-coo-o-o — coo-o-o — coo-o-o,  as  sad 
as  the  voice  of  the  wind  in  the  pines. 

Although  the  bird  is  as  beautiful  in  appearance  as  it 
is  graceful  in  flight,  it  TS  a  surprisingly  poor  housekeeper. 
Its  platform  nest  of  a  few  twigs  is  about  as  flimsy  as  any- 
thing worthy  the  name  can  be,  and  one  wonders  how 
even  two  eggs  are  kept  on  it  long  enough  to  hatch.  In 
the  West  the  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground ;  in  the  East, 
on  the  lower  branch  of  a  tree. 

Like  all  the  members  of  their  family,  Doves  immerse 
the  bill  while  drinking,  and  do  not  withdraw  it  until 
the  draught  is  finished.  The  young  are  fed  on  softened 
food  regurgitated  from  the  parent's  crop. 


BIRDS  OF  PREY.     (ORDER  RAPTORES.) 

AMERICAN  VULTURES.    (FAMILY  CATHARTIDJE.) 

THERE  are  but  eight  Vultures  in  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, and  only  two  of  these,  the  Black  and  the  Turkey 
Vulture,  are  found  in  the  eastern  United  States.  The 
former  is  not  often  seen  north  of  North 
S, "'  Carofci*  but  the  Turkey  Vulture,  or 
Turkey  Buzzard,  as  it  is  more  frequent- 
ly called,  comes  each  summer  as  far  as  Princeton,  N.  J., 
and  occasionally  strays  farther  north. 

The  Turkey  Buzzard  is  one  of  Nature's  scavengers, 
and,  as  such,  is  one  of  the  few  birds  whose  services  to 
mankind  are  thoroughly  appreciated.  There  are  others 
of  equal  or  even  greater  value  who  daily  earn  their 
right  to  the  good  will  which  we  stupidly  and  persistently 
refuse  to  grant  them ;  but  of  the  Turkey  Buzzard's  assist- 
ance we  have  frequent  convincing  proof,  and  the  decree  has 
gone  forth  that  injury  to  this  bird  is  punishable  by  fine. 


\M 


PLATE  XIII. 

MOURNING  DOVE. 

Length,  1175  inches.  Upper  parts  olive  grayish  brown,  sides  and  back  of 
neck  iridescent ;  breast  with  a  pinkish  tinge,  belly  buff  ;  outer  tail-feathers 
tipped  with  white. 

115 


RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK. 

No  other  birds  are  so  well  protected  ;  and  as  a  result 
Turkey  Buzzards  and  Black  Vultures  walk  about  the  streets 
of  some  of  our  Southern  cities  with  the  tameness  of  domes- 
tic fowls.  If  we  should  similarly  encourage  our  insectivo- 
rous birds,  who  can  predict  the  benefits  which  might  accrue  ? 

HAWKS,  FALCONS,  AND  EAGLES.    (FAMILY  FALCONID^E.) 

To  this  family  belong  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey, 
which  number  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  species,  and 
are  distributed  throughout  the  world.  They  are  birds 
of  strong  flight,  and  capture  their  prey  on  the  wing  by 
striking  it  with  their  sharp,  curved  claws,  the  most  dead- 
ly weapons  to  be  found  in  any  bird's  armament.  The 
bill  is  short,  stout,  and  hooked,  and  is  used  to  tear  the 
prey  while  it  is  held  by  the  feet. 

The  voices  of  Hawks  are  in  keeping  with  their  dis- 
positions, and,  while  their  lives  typify  all  that  is  fierce 
and  cruel,  no  birds  are  more  often  wrongly  accused  and 
falsely  persecuted  than  our  birds  of  prey.  To  kill  one 
is  regarded  as  an  act  of  special  merit ;  to  spare  one  seems 
to  place  a  premium  on  crime.  Still,  these  birds  are  among 
the  best  friends  of  the  farmer.  There  are  but  two  of  our 
common  species,  Cooper's  and  the  Sharp-shinned,  who 
habitually  feed  on  birds  and  poultry.  Our  other  com- 
mon species  are,  without  exception,  invaluable  aids  to  the 
agriculturist  in  preventing  the  undue  increase  of  the  small 
rodents  so  destructive  to  crops. 

Any  one  reading  Dr.  Fisher's  reports  on  this  subject 
can  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  array  of  facts  he 
•B~A  v.  IA  A  presents  in  proof  of  the  value  of  these 

Rea-snouldered  _          n        . 

Hawk,  birds.      For   instance,  the    Ked-shoul- 
Buteo  Uneatus.       dered     Hawk,    to    which    the    name 
Plate  xiv.          Chicken    or  Hen   Hawk  is  often  ap- 
plied, has  been  found  to  live  largely  on  small  mammals, 


PLATE  XIV. 

RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK. 

Length,  19'00  inches.  Adult,  upper  parts  blackish  brown  and  rusty  ;  lesser 
wing-coverts  bright  chestnut ;  wings  and  tail  black  and  white  ;  under  parts 
rich  rusty  and  white.  Young,  less  rusty  on  back,  wings  and  tail  largely 
rusty  ;  under  parts  white,  spotted  or  streaked  with  blackish. 

117 


118  RED-SHOULDERED  HAWK. 

reptiles,  batrachians,  and  insects.  Indeed  of  220  stomachs 
which  were  examined  of  this  so-called  "  Chicken  "  Hawk, 
only  3  contained  remains  of  poultry !  Of  the  rest,  12 
contained  birds ;  102,  mice ;  40,  other  mammals ;  20, 
reptiles ;  39,  batrachians ;  92,  insects ;  16,  spiders ;  7, 
crawfish ;  1,  earthworms  ;  2,  offal  ;  3,  fish  ;  and  14  were 
empty.*  The  usefulness  of  this  Hawk  is  therefore  obvi- 
ous, and  in  killing  it  we  can  readily  see  that  we  not  only 
harm  ourselves  but  render  an  important  service  to  our 
enemies. 

Fortunately,  this  valuable  ally  is  one  of  our  com- 
monest Hawks,  and  is  with  us  throughout  the  year.  Its 
loud  scream,  kee-you,  kee-you,  as  it  sails  about,  high  in  the 
air,  is  a  familiar  summer  sound.  The  "  red  "  shoulder  is  in 
reality  a  rich,  reddish  chestnut  on  the  lesser  wing-coverts, 
and  serves  to  identify  the  bird  in  both  immature  and 
adult  plumage.  The  Red-shoulder's  nest,  like  that  of 
most  of  our  Hawks,  is  constructed  of  sticks  and  twigs, 
with  a  lining  of  cedar  bark,  moss,  or  some  other  soft 
material,  and  is  situated  in  a  tree  thirty  to  sixty  feet 
from  the  ground.  Apparently  the  same  pair  of  birds  re- 
turn to  a  locality  year  after  year,  sometimes  using  the 
same  nest,  at  others  building  a  new  one.  The  eggs  are 
about  as  large  as  those  of  a  hen  and  in  color  are  dull 
white,  more  or  less  sprinkled,  spotted,  or  blotched  with 
cinnamon-brown  or  chocolate.  They  are  laid  early  in 
April,  most  of  the  Hawks  being  early  breeders.  The 
young  are  born  covered  with  white  down,  but  are  help- 
less, and  are  reared  in  the  nest. 

The  Red-tailed  Hawk  is  also  known  as  the  Hen  Hawk 
or  Chicken  Hawk,  but  has  almost  as  good  a  record  as 


*  See  Fisher,  The  Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States  in  their 
Relation  to  Agriculture;  Bulletin  No.  3,  Division  of  Ornithology 
and  Mammalogy,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1893. 


PLATE  XV. 

MARSH  HAWK. 

Length,  20-00  inches.  Adult  male,  upper  parts  gray  ;  under  parts  white  with 
rusty  spots  ;  upper  tail-coverts  white.  Adult  female  and  young,  upper 
parts  black  and  rich  rusty  ;  under  parts  rich  rusty  and  black  ;  upper  tail- 
coverts  white. 

119 


120  HAWKS. 

the   Red-shoulder,  and  is  equally  deserving  of  protec- 
tion.    He  is  larger  than  the  Red-shoulder,  whom  he  re- 
sembles  in  habits,  and   has   a   reddish 
Red-tailed  Hawk,      brQwn   ^   and    a   broken   ^^^   ^^ 

Jjuteo  boreaiis. 

across  the  breast  when  adult.  His  call 
is  a  thin,  long-drawn,  wheezy  whistle,  which  reminds  one 
of  the  sound  produced  by  escaping  steam. 

The  Marsh  Hawk  courses  to  and  fro  over  field  and 
meadow,  like  a  Gull  over  the  water.  He  never  sails, 

Marsh  Hawk,        however,  but  on  firm  wing  flies  easily 

Circus  kudsonius.      and  gracefully,  ever  on  the  watch  for 

Plate  XV.  prey  in   the  grasses  below.      He  may 

sometimes  mistake  birds  for  mice,  but  he  captures  far 

more  of  the  latter  than  of  the  former,  and  only  Y  of  the 

124  Marsh  Hawks  whose  stomachs  were  examined  by 

Dr.  Fisher  had  eaten  chickens. 

The  Marsh  Hawk  is  migratory,  and  in  winter  is  not 
often  found  north  of  southern  Connecticut.  He  nests 
later  than  the  resident  Hawks,  and,  unlike  them,  builds 
his  nest  of  grasses  on  the  ground  in  the  marshes,  laying 
from  four  to  six  dull  white  or  bluish  white  eggs  early 
in  May. 

The    Sparrow  Hawk   has   a   perfectly  clean  record, 

as  far  as  chickens  go,  not  one  of  the  320  whose  stomachs 

Sparrow  Hawk,       were  examined  by  Dr.  Fisher,  having 

Falco  sparverius.       partaken  of  poultry,  while  no  less  than 

Plate  xvi.  215  had  eaten  insects,  and  89  had  cap- 
tured mice.  Grasshoppers  are  the  Sparrow  Hawk's  chief 
food,  and  we  may  often  see  him  hovering  over  the  fields 
with  rapidly  moving  wings.  Then,  dropping  lightly  down 
on  some  unsuspected  victim  below,  he  returns  to  the  bare 
limb  or  stub  he  uses  for  a  lookout  station,  uttering  an 
exultant  killy — kitty — ~killy  as  he  flies. 

The  Sparrow  is  distributed  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  North  America,  but  in  winter  is  not  found  north 


PLATE  XVI. 

SPARROW   HAWK. 

Length,  11 '00  inches.  Male,  back  reddish  brown  and  black,  wing-coverts 
slaty  blue,  tail  reddish  brown  marked  with  black  and  white ;  under  parts 
washed  with  rusty  and  spotted  with  black.  Female,  back,  wings,  and  tail 
barred  with  reddish  brown  and  black  ;  under  parts  white,  streaked  with  red- 
dish brown. 

121 


122  HAWKS. 

of  southern  New  York.  It  migrates  northward  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March,  but  does  not  nest  until  May.  Unlike 
our  other  Hawks,  it  chooses  a  hollow  tree  for  a  home, 
often  taking  possession  of  a  Woodpecker's  deserted  hole. 
It  lays  three  to  seven  eggs,  which  are  finely  and  evenly 
marked  with  reddish  brown. 

It  is  the  Sharp-shinned  and  Cooper's  Hawks  who  are 
the  real  culprits  in  Hawkdom.     They  feed  almost  exclu- 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  sivel7  on  birds>  and<  having  once  ac- 
Acdpiter  veiox.  quired  a  taste  for  tender  young  broilers, 
Plate  xvii.  ^ey  are  apt  to  make  daily  visits  to  the 
hen  yards.  They  are  less  often  observed  than  the  Hawks 
previously  mentioned,  seeking  less  exposed  perches  and 
soaring  comparatively  little ;  but,  when  seen,  their  slen- 
der bodies  and  long  tails  should  aid  in  distinguishing 
them  from  the  stouter,  slower-flying  Hawks.  As  a  rule, 
they  are  silent.  It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  differences 
between  these  and-  other  Hawks  with  sufficient  clearness 
to  prevent  one's  killing  the  wrong  kind,  but  if  the  farmer 
will  withhold  his  judgment  against  Hawks  in  general, 
and  shoot  only  those  that  visit  his  poultry  yard,  he  will 
not  go  far  astray. 

Cooper's  Hawk  resembles  the  Sharp-shinned  in  color, 

but  is  about  four  inches  longer,  and  its  outer  tail-feathers 

are  about  half  an  inch  shorter  than  the 

length.  With  the  preceding  species  it 
may  be  known  by  its  slender  form,  long  tail,  compara- 
tively short  wings,  and  long,  thin  tarsi  or  "  legs." 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  train  Cormorants  to  fish 

American  Osprey,       f °r  them>  bllt  the  services  of  these  Wrdfl 

Pandion  haiiaetus        would   soon  be  at   a  discount  if  the 

caroiinensis.   Osprey  could  be  induced  to  work  for  a 

Plate  XVIII.  i  -tin  •         •   -  •    i  j.   -x  • 

master.  What  an  inspiring  sight  it  is 
to  see  one  plunge  from  the  air  upon  its  prey  !  One  can 


PLATE  XVII. 

SHARP-SHINNED  HAWK. 

Length  of  male,  11-25  inches;  of  female,  13'50  inches.  Adult,  upper  parts 
slaty  gray  ;  under  parts  white  and  rusty  brown.  Young,  upper  parts  black- 
ish brown  ;  under  parts  white,  streaked  with  rusty  brown. 

123 


124  OWLS. 

sometimes  hear  the  splash  half  a  mile  or  more,  and  the 
bird  is  quite  concealed  by  the  spray.  It  is  a  magnifi- 
cent performance,  and  when,  after  shaking  the  water  from 
his  plumage,  he  rises  into  the  air,  I  am  always  tempted  to 
applaud. 

The  Osprey,  or  Fish  Hawk,  as  he  is  also  called,  adheres 
closely  to  a  finny  diet ;  neither  flesh  nor  fowl  appears  on 
his  menu,  and  he  is  consequently  a  migratory  bird,  com- 
ing in  April  when  the  ice  has  melted  and  remaining  until 
October.  In  favorable  localities  he  nests  in  colonies,  re- 
turning year  after  year  to  the  same  nest. 

One  master,  it  is  true,  the  Osprey  has,  though  he 
makes  a  most  unwilling  servant.  The  Bald-headed 
Eagle  is  often  an  appreciative  observer  of  the  Osprey's 

Bald  Eagle,         piscatorial  powers,  which  so  far  exceed 

Haliceetus  his  own    that   he  wisely,  if  unjustly, 

UucocepJialus.  profitg  by  foem>    pursuing  foe  Osprey, 

he  forces  him  to  mount  higher  and  higher  until  the  poor 
bird  in  despair  drops  his  prize,  which  the  Eagle  captures 
as  it  falls. 

Eagles  are  becoming  so  rare  in  the  Northern  States 
that  their  occurrence  is  sometimes  commented  on  by  the 
local  press  as  a  matter  of  general  interest.  Nevertheless, 
no  opportunity  to  kill  them  is  neglected,  and  the  majestic 
birds  who  in  life  arouse  our  keenest  admiration  are  sac- 
rificed to  the  wanton  desire  to  kill. 


THE  OWLS.    (FAMILY 

The  Owls  number  about  two  hundred  species,  and 
are  distributed  throughout  the  world.  As  a  rule  they 
are  nocturnal  or  crepuscular  birds,  passing  the  day  in 
hollow  trees  or  dense  evergreens,  and  appearing  only 
after  nightfall ;  but  there  are  some  diurnal  species,  such 


PLATE  XVIII. 

AMERICAN   OSPREY. 

Length,  23'00  inches.    Upper  parts  brownish  black  ;  nape  and  under  parts 
white  ;  breast  marked  with  grayish  brown. 

125 


126  OWLS. 

as  the  Snowy  Owl  and  Hawk  Owl,  northern  birds  that 
visit  us  rarely  in  winter. 

Because  of  their  nocturnal  habits  Owls  are  even  more 
deserving  of  protection  than  the  beneficial  Hawks,  for 
they  feed  at  a  time  when  mice  are  abroad,  and  their 
food  consists  largely  of  these  destructive  little  rodents. 
They  capture  their  prey,  like  the  Hawks,  by  striking  it 
with  their  powerful  talons,  when,  if  small  enough,  it  is 
swallowed  entire.  The  indigestible  portions,  hair,  bones, 
and  feathers,  are  formed  into  pellets  in  the  stomach  and 
ejected  at  the  mouth.  These  may  always  be  found  in 
numbers  beneath  an  Owl's  roosting  place,  and  form  as 
sure  an  indication  of  the  Owl's  presence  as  they  do  of 
the  nature  of  his  food.  Thus,  as  before  mentioned,  two 
hundred  pellets  of  the  Barn  Owl,  taken  from  the  home  of 
a  pair  of  these  birds  in  the  tower  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, were  found  by  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  to  contain  the 
skulls  of  454  small  mammals. 

Owls  are  generally  inhabitants  of  woods,  but  our 
Short-eared  Owl  is  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  lives 

Short-eared  Owl,  in  large>  grassJ  m^lies.  I*  passes  the 
Asia  accipitrinus.  day  on  the  ground,  but  at  dusk  may  be 
Plate  xix.  geen  flying  low  over  the  marsh  in  search 
of  the  meadow  mice  which  form  a  large  part  of  its  food. 
Dr.  Fisher  found,  on  examination  of  101  stomachs  of  this 
Owl,  that  no  less  than  77  contained  the  remains  of  mice, 
convincing  proof  of  its  usefulness.  Unlike  any  of  our 
other  Owls,  the  Short-eared  makes  its  nest  on  the  ground, 
laying  from  four  to  seven  eggs.  It  is  somewhat  irregular 
in  its  distribution,  but  has  been  found  nesting,  locally, 
from  Virginia  northward.  It  winters  from  New  Jersey 
southward,  and  is  sometimes  associated  in  companies  at 
this  season. 

The  Long-eared  Owl  is  about  the  size  of  the  Short- 
eared  Owl,  but  its  "  ear-tufts  "  are  an  inch  or  more  in 


PLATE  XIX. 

SHORT-EARED  OWL. 

Length,  15'50  inches.    Upper  parts  black,  buff,  and  rusty  ;  under  parts  white 
and  brownish  black  ;  eyes  yellow. 

127 


128  OWLS. 

length,  and  its  sides  and  belly  are  barred,  not  streaked, 

with  blackish.     It  does  not  frequent  marshes,  but  lives  in 

swampy  thickets  or  dense  woods,  and 

Long-eared  Owl,       makes  its  nest  in  t}ie  abandoned  home 

Asia  w^lson^anus.  , 

of  a  Crow,  Hawk,  or  squirrel.  It  is  a 
permanent  resident  from  at  least  Massachusetts  south- 
ward. 

Of  our  four  "  horned  "  Owls,  the  Long-eared  has  rela- 
tively the  largest  and  most  conspicuous  "  ear-tufts,"  the 
Short-eared  the  smallest,  while  in  the  Great  Horned  Owl 
and  Screech  Owl  the  ears  are  of  about  the  same  propor- 
tionate size.  The  Great  Horned  Owl,  however,  is  found 
only  in  the  wilder,  more  heavily  wooded  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  is  hardly  to  be  included  in  a  list  of  our  common 
birds.  It  is  the  largest  of  our  resident  Owls,  the  males 
measuring  twenty-two  inches  in  length,  while  its  "ear- 
tufts  "  are  nearly  two  inches  long. 

The  Screech  Owl  is  doubtless  the  commonest  of  our 
Owls,  as  it  is  also  the  most  familiar,  nesting  about  and 

Screech  Owl,         even  in  our  houses  when  some  favor- 

Megascops  asio.        able  hole  offers.     It  has  little  to  say  for 

Plate  xx.  itself  until  its   family  of  four  to  six 

fuzzy  Owlets  is  safely  launched  into  the  world ;  then,  in 

July  or  August,  we  may  hear  its  melancholy  voice — not 

a  "screech,"  but  a  tremulous,  wailing  whistle.     It  has 

several  other  notes  difficult  to  describe,  and  when  alarmed 

defiantly  snaps  its  bill. 

Some  Screech  Owls  are  gray,  others  bright  reddish 
brown,  and  these  extremes  are  connected  by  specimens 
intermediate  in  color.  This  difference  in  color  is  not  due 
to  age,  sex,  or  season,  and  is  termed  dichromatism,  or 
the  presence  in  the  same  species  of  two  phases  of  color. 
The  same  phenomenon  is  shown  by  other  birds,  notably 
certain  Herons,  and  among  mammals  by  the  gray  squir- 
rel, some  individuals  of  which  are  black.  The  observa- 


PLATE  XX. 

SCREECH  OWL. 

Length,  9'40  inches.    Upper  parts  gray,  or  bright  reddish  brown,  and  black 
under  parts  white,  gray,  or  bright  reddish  brown,  and  black  ;  eyes  yellow. 

129 

10 


130  BARRED  OWL. 

tions  of  Dr.  A.  P.  Chadbourne  apparently  show  that  the 
Screech  Owl  may  pass  from  one  phase  to  another  without 
change  of  plumage.* 

We  do  not  think  of  Owls  as  being  insectivorous  birds, 
but  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  tells  us  that  of  225  Screech  Owls' 
stomachs  examined,  100  contained  insects.  As  91  of  the 
remaining  125  contained  mice,  and  poultry  was  found 
in  only  one  stomach,  the  farmer  may  well  consider  the 
Screech  Owl  a  bird  of  good  repute  rather  than  of  ill 
omen. 

Next  to  the  Screech  Owl  the  Barred  Owl  is  doubtless 
our  most  common  representative  of  this  family,  but  its 

Barred  Owl,  fondness  for  deep  woods  prevents  its 
Symium  nebuiosum.  being  known  to  many  who  recognize  the 
Plate  xxi.  Screech  Owl's  mournful  song. 

In  both  voice  and  appearance  the  Barred  Owl  seems 
the  most  human  of  our  Owls.  Its  call  is  a  deep-voiced 
questioning  whoo-whoo-iukob,  who-whoo,  to-whoo-ah, 
which  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile.  It 
echoes  through  the  woods  at  night  with  startling  force, 
and  the  stories  told  of  its  effect  on  persons  who  were 
ignorant  of  its  source  are  doubtless  not  without  foun- 
dation. 

Other  calls  are  a  long-drawn  who-d-d-o-dh,  and  rarely 
a  thrilling,  weird  shriek.  When  two  or  more  Owls  are 
together,  they  sometimes  join  in  a  most  singular  concerted 
performance.  One  utters  about  ten  rapid  hoots,  while 
the  other,  in  a  slightly  higher  tone,  hoots  about  half  as 
fast,  both  birds  ending  together  with  a  whoo-ah.  At 
other  times  they  may  hoot  and  laugh  in  a  most  remark- 
able and  quite  indescribable  manner. 

The  Barred  Owl  feeds  largely  on  mice,  and  46  of  100 
stomachs  examined  contained  remains  of  these  rodents. 

*  The  Auk  (New  York  city),  xiii,  189G,  p.  321 ;  xiv,  1897,  p.  33. 


PLATE  XXI. 

BARRED  OWL. 

Length,  SO'OO  inches.    Upper  parts  blackish  brown  and  white  ;  under  parts 
white  and  blackish  brown  ;  eyes  black. 

131 


132  CUCKOOS. 

It  is  generally  resident  throughout  its  range,  and  in 
March  makes  its  nest,  selecting  for  a  site  a  hollow  tree, 
or  the  deserted  home  of  a  Crow  or  Hawk.  Two  to  four 
eggs  are  laid,  which,  like  the  eggs  of  all  Owls,  are  pure 
white. 


CUCKOOS,   KINGFISHERS,   ETC.     (ORDER  COCCYGES). 

CUCKOOS.     (FAMILY  CUCULIDTE.) 

ALL  Cuckoos  have  two  toes  directed  forward  and  two 
backward,  but  the  cause  or  use  of  this  character  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  understand,  so  widely  do  the  members  of  this 
family  differ  in  habit.  Some  are  arboreal,  never  visiting 
the  earth,  while  others  are  terrestrial,  running  with  great 
swiftness,  and  rarely  perching  far  above  the  ground. 

Most  Cuckoos  —  all  our  thirty  -five  American  species  — 
have  noticeably  long  tails,  which  they  raise  and  droop 
slowly  just  after  alighting,  or  when  their  curiosity  is 
aroused. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy  -five  known  species, 
only  two  are  found  in  the  northeastern  States  —  the  Yel- 

.  „   ,        billed  and  the   Black  -billed    Cuckoos. 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  . 

The  former  is  generally  the  more  corn- 


americanus. 


Plate  xxii.  mon.  It  is  a  retiring  bird,  and  you 
will  doubtless  be  first  attracted  to  it  by  its  notes.  It  does 
not  perch  in  an  exposed  position,  nor  make  long  flights, 
but  usually  flies  from  the  shelter  of  one  tree  directly  into 
the  protecting  foliage  of  another.  If  you  catch  a  glimpse 
of  it  in  passing,  its  long  tail  and  brownish  color  will 
suggest  a  Dove. 

Cuckoos  are  mysterious  birds  well  worth  watching. 
I  would  not  imply  that  their  deeds  are  evil  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are  exceedingly  beneficial  birds.  One  of 
their  favorite  foods  is  the  tent  caterpillar  which  spins  the 


PLATE  XXII. 

YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO. 

Length,  12'25  inches.     Upper  parts  glossy  olive-brown  :  outer  tail-feathers 
black,  tipped  with  white  ;  under  parts  white  ;  lower  mandible  yellow. 

133 


134  KINGFISHERS. 

destructive  u  worms'  nests  "  in  our  fruit  and  shade  trees. 
Indeed,  we  should  be  very  much  better  oft  if  Cuckoos 
were  more  numerous.  Nevertheless,  there  is  something 
about  the  Cuckoo's  actions  which  always  suggests  to  me 
that  he  either  has  just  done,  or  is  about  to  do,  something 
he  shouldn't. 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo's  call  begins  with  a  series 
of  tuirtuts  or  cl-ucks,  and  ends  with  a  loud  cow,  cow,  cow, 
cow,  cow,  cow.  These  notes  are  so  unlike  those  of  any 
other  of  our  birds,  except  those  of  the  Black-billed 
Cuckoo,  that  they  will  readily  be  recognized. 

The  Black-billed  Cuckoo  resembles  the  Yellow-bill, 
but  has  the  bill  wholly  black,  the  skin  about  the  eye  red, 
Black-billed  Cuckoo,  and  tne  tail-feathers  with  only  small, 
inconspicuous  whitish  tips.  It  resem- 
bleg  the  Yellow-bill  in  habits,  but,  as 
Mr.  Brewster  tells  me,  its  tut  and  cluck  notes  are  softer, 
and  the  cow-cow  notes  are  connected. 

Both  our  Cuckoos  are  migratory,  wintering  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America.  They  return  to  us  about  May 
5,  and  remain  until  October.  Their  nests  are  carelessly 
made  platforms  of  sticks  with  a  few  catkins  added  as  a 
lining,  and  are  usually  placed  in  tangles  of  vine-covered 
bushes,  or  the  lower  limbs  of  trees.  The  eggs,  three  to 
five  in  number,  are  pale,  greenish  blue,  those  of  the 
Black-bill  being  slightly  smaller  in  size  and  darker  in 
color  than  those  of  its  yellow-billed  cousin. 

KINGFISHERS.     (FAMILY  ALCEDINID^E.) 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  eighty  known  Kingfishers, 
only  eight  are  inhabitants  of  the  New  World,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  family  being  in  the  East  Indies.  The  New 
World  species  are  mostly  tropical,  and  but  one  of  the  eight 
reaches  the  eastern  United  States.  This  is  our  common 


.V^JBS  :  i 

PLATtf  XXIII. 

BELTED   KINGFISHER. 

Length,  13'00  inches.  Male,  upper  parts  bluish  gray  ;  under  parts  white,  a 
bluish  gray  breast-band  and  sides.  Female,  similar,  but  breast  and  sides 
with  reddish  brown. 

135 


136  WOODPECKERS. 

Belted  Kingfisher,  familiar  by  voice  and  appearance  to 

every  one  who  lives  near  a  river  or  pond.     He  comes 

Belted  Kingfisher,      ^n  April,   when  the  ice   no  longer  cov- 

Ceryie  alcyon.        ers   his   hunting  ground,  and   remains 

Plate  xxin.         until  November ;   or,  if  the  season  be 

exceptionally  mild,  he  sometimes   stays  for  the  winter 

fishing.     His  nest  is  built  in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  where, 

early  in  May,  his  mate  lays  from  five  to  eight  white 

eggs. 

The  Kingfisher  is  generally  branded  a  fish  thief  and 
accounted  a  fair  mark  for  every  man  with  a  gun,  and, 
were  it  not  for  his  discretion  in  judging  distances  and 
knowing  just  when  to  fly,  he  would  long  ago  have  disap- 
peared from  the  haunts  of  man.  We  might  now  be  a 
few  fish  richer,  but  would  they  repay  us  for  the  loss  of 
this  genius  of  wooded  shores  ? 


WOODPECKERS  AND  WRYNECKS.     (ORDER  PICI.) 

WOODPECKERS.     (FAMILY  PICID^E.) 

THE  three  hundred  and  fifty  known  species  of  Wood- 
peckers are  represented  in  all  the  wooded  parts  of  the 
world  except  the  Australian  region  and  Madagascar. 
Nearly  one  half  this  number  are  found  in  the  New 
World,  and  of  these  twenty -five  occur  in  North  America. 

Few  birds  seem  better  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life 
than  Woodpeckers,  the  structure  of  their  bill,  tongue, 
tail,  and  feet  being  admirably  suited  to  their  needs. 

The  notes  of  Woodpeckers  can  not  be  termed  musical, 
and  their  chief  contribution  to  the  springtime  chorus  is  a 
rolling  tattoo  which  resembles  the  k-r-r-r-ring  call  of  the 
tree  frogs.  The  feathered  drummer  selects  a  resonant 
limb  and  pounds  out  his  song  with  a  series  of  strokes  de- 


PLATE  XXIV. 

DOWNY  WOODPECKER. 

Length,  675  inches.    Male,  upper  parts  black  and  white,  nape  scarlet  ;  under 
parts  white.    Female,  similar,  but  no  scarlet  on  nape. 

137 


138  WOODPECKERS. 

livered  so  quickly  that  his  head  becomes  a  series  of  mazy 
heads. 

Watch  the  Downy  Woodpecker,  our  commonest 
species,  while  he  is  engaged  in  this  surprising  perform- 

Downy  Woodpecker,     ance'     How  he  seems  to  eiW  &  !     HiS 

Dryobates  pube*cen*      whole  appearance  is  martial  and  defi- 
medianus,  ant.     ft  is  his  challenge  to  the  Wood- 

Jrlate  -X..X.I.V.  -.  ,,          .„ 

pecker  world.  After  each  roll  he  looks 
proudly  about  him  and  perhaps  utters  his  call-note,  a 
sharp  peek,  peek)  which  suggests  the  sound  produced  by 
a  marble  cutter's  chisel.  More  rarely  this  call  is  pro- 
longed into  a  connected  series,  when  one  can  readily 
imagine  that  the  quarrier  has  dropped  his  tool. 

The  Downy  is  a  hardy  bird  and  is  with  us  throughout 
the  year.  In  the  winter  he  forms  a  partnership  with  the 
Chickadee  and  Nuthatch,  and  if  the  good  this  trio  does 
could  be  expressed  in  figures,  these  neglected  friends  of 
ours  might  receive  some  small  part  of  the  credit  due 
them.  Who  can  estimate  the  enormous  numbers  of  in- 
sects' eggs  and  larvae  which  these  patient  explorers  of 
trunk  and  twig  destroy  ? 

The  Downy,  as  well  as  some  other  Woodpeckers,  be- 
lieves in  the  comfort  of  a  home.  He  will  not  pass  cold, 
wintry  nights  clinging  to  the  leeward  side  of  a  tree  when 
by  the  use  of  his  chisel -bill  he  can  hollow  a  snug  chamber 
in  its  heart.  So,  in  the  fall,  we  may  sometimes  find  him 
preparing  his  winter  quarters.  His  nest  is  constructed 
in  the  same  manner,  and  his  eggs,  like  those  of  all  Wood- 
peckers, are  glossy  white. 

The  Hairy  Woodpecker,  the  Downy's  big  cousin,  is 
not  quite  so  common  as  his  smaller 
relative.  The  two  birds  are  nearly  alike 
in  color,  and  differ  only  in  the  mark- 
ings of  the  outer  tail-feathers.  In  the  Downy  these  are 
white,  barred  with  black ;  in  the  Hairy,  white  without 


RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER. 

Length,  9'75  inches.  Adult,  whole  head  and  neck  deep  red,  back  and  tail 
black  ;  upper  tail-coverts,  greater  part  of  secondaries,  and  belly  white. 
Young,  similar,  but  head,  back,  throat,  and  sides  grayish  black. 

139 


140  WOODPECKERS. 

black  bars.  The  case  is  interesting,  and  shows  how  nearly 
alike  in  color  distinct  species  may  be.  In  size,  however, 
the  difference  is  more  noticeable,  the  Hairy  being  nearly 
three  inches  the  longer. 

In  life  the  Hairy  is  a  somewhat  shier  bird,  fonder  of 
the  forest  than  of  the  orchard.  His  peek  note  is  louder 
and  sharper  than  that  of  the  Downy,  and  his  rattling  call 
suggests  that  of  the  Kingfisher. 

The  gayly  colored  Hed-headed  "Woodpecker  is  as 
erratic  in  his  goings  and  comings- as  he  is  striking  in 

dress.     In  the  northeastern  States  he  is 
Bed-headed 

Woodpecker.   l°callj  common  in  summer,  and  if  well 

supplied  with  beechnuts,  may  remain 
durmg  the  winter.  Some  years  the 
grayish  headed  young  birds  are  excep- 
tionally abundant  in  the  fall,  but  their  white  wing-patch- 
es, which  show  so  conspicuously  when  they  fly,  and  their 
loud,  rolling  call  of  her-r-ruck,,  ker-r-ruek,  are  unmistak- 
able marks  of  identity. 

The  most  interesting  of  our  Woodpeckers  is  the 
Flicker,  or  High-hole,  whose  popularity  is  attested  by 

Flicker  n^s  ^s*  °^  no  ^ess  *nan  thirty  odd  com- 

Coiaptes  auratus.  mon  names.  Surely  here  is  an  instance 

Plate  xxvi.  illustrating  the  necessity  of  one  sci- 
entific term  by  which  the  "  Piquebois  jaune  "  of  Louisi- 
ana may  be  recognized  as  the  "  Clape "  of  New  York. 
He  is  also  a  Yucker,  a  Flicker,  and  a  Yellow-ham- 
mer ;  all  these  names  being  based  on  his  notes  or  plu- 
mage. 

The  Flicker  is  less  of  a  carpenter  than  are  others  of 
his  family,  and  generally  selects  decayed  logs  and  stumps 
as  his  hunting  grounds.  Here  he  hunts  for  his  favorite 
food  of  ants,  which  he  also  procures  at  their  holes  and 
mounds.  This  is  the  reason  we  so  often  flush  the  Flicker 
from  the  ground,  and,  if  we  mark  the  spot  from  which  he 


PLATE  XXVI. 

FLICKER. 

Length,  12'00  inches.  Male,  crown  gray,  nape  scarlet,  back  brownish  and 
black,  rump  white  ;  under  surface  of  wings  and  tail  yellow  :  sides  of  throat 
and  breast-patch  black  ;  belly  spotted  with  black.  Female,  similar,  but 
uo  black  on  sides  of  throat. 

141 


142  GOATSUCKERS. 

rises,  the  probabilities  are  that  we  shall  find  there  a  much- 
disturbed  community  of  ants. 

Professor  Beal  has  shown  that  nearly  one  half  of  the 
Flicker's  food  consists  of  ants.  He  further  tells  us  that 
as  ants  aid  in  the  increase  of  the  plant  lice  so  injurious 
to  vegetation,  the  birds  which  feed  on  ants  are  therefore 
the  friends  of  the  agriculturist. 

The  Flicker's  most  prominent  marks,  as  with  a  low 
chuckle  he  bounds  up  before  you,  are  his  white  rump 
patch  and  his  wings,  which  show  yellow  in  flight.  His 
notes  are  equally  characteristic.  The  most  common  is  a 
loud,  vigorous  ~kee-yer,  apparently  a  signal  or  salute.  In 
the  spring,  and  occasionally  in  the  fall,  he  utters  a  pleas- 
ing, rather  dreamy  cuh-cuh-cuh-euh,  many  times  repeated. 
When  two  or  more  birds  are  together,  and  in  my  ex- 
perience only  then,  they  address  each  other  with  a 
singular  weeehew,  weechew,  weechew,  a  sound  which  can 
be  imitated  by  the  swishing  of  a  willow  wand.  Much 
ceremony  evidently  prevails  in  the  Flicker  family,  and 
on  these  occasions  there  is  more  bowing  and  scraping 
than  one  often  sees  outside  of  Spain. 


GOATSUCKERS,   SWIFTS,  AND  HUMMINGBIRDS. 
(ORDER   MACROCHIRES.) 

NlGHTHAWKS  AND  WHIP-POOR-WILLS. 
(FAMILY  CAPRIMULGID^E.) 

IN  this  family  the  mouth  of  birds  reaches  its  greatest 
development,  while  the  bill  proper  is  correspondingly 
small,  bearing  much  the  same  relation  to  the  mouth  that 
a  clasp  does  to  a  purse.  These  birds  feed  at  night  upon 
insects  which  they  catch  on  the  wing,  and  their  enormous 
gape  is  obviously  of  great  assistance  in  this  mode  of  feed- 
ing. Often  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  beset  with  long 


PLATE  XXVII. 

NIGHTHAWK. 

Length,  lO'OO  inches.  Male,  above,  black,  white,  and  rusty  :  below,  black  and 
white  ;  throat,  bands  in  wing,  and  tail  white.  Female,  similar,  but  throat 
rusty  ;  no  tail-band. 

WHIP-POOR-WILL. 

Length,  9'75  inches.  Male,  body  black,  rusty,  and  buff  ;  primaries  spotted 
with  rusty  ;  tips  of  outer  tail-feathers  and  breast-band  white.  Female,  simi- 
lar, but  breast-band  and  end  of  tail  rusty. 

143 


144  NIGHTHAWK. 

bristles,  which  doubtless  act  like  the  wings  to  a  fish-net, 
steering  unfortunate  insects  down  the  bird's  cavernous 
throat. 

The  Nighthawk,  or  Bull-  bat,  as  he  is  called  in  the 
South,  is  familiar  to  most  persons  who  have  the  gift  of 
Ni  htha  k          seeing  birds,  but—  in  the  northeastern 
States,  at  least  —  he  is  usually  confused 
with  the  Whip-poor-will,  and  little  is 


known  of  his  real  character. 

The  JSTighthawk  is  a  bird  of  the  sky.  He  passes  the 
day  perched  motionless  on  a  limb  in  wooded  regions,  on 
the  ground  in  treeless  regions,  or  even  on  a  house  top, 
when,  as  sometimes  happens,  he  makes  his  home  in  a  city. 
Probably  he  will  not  change  his  perch  during  the  day, 
but  as  night  approaches  and  his  day  begins,  he  will 
spread  his  long  wings  and  fly  away  heavenward  to 
course  far  above  the  earth  in  his  search  for  insect 
food. 

The  Nighthawk,  unlike  most  members  of  its  family, 
has  limited  vocal  powers,  its  only  note  being  a  loud,  nasal 
peent  uttered  as  it  flies.  But  it  has  musical  talents  in 
another  direction.  Sometimes  in  May  or  June,  if  you 
happen  to  be  where  Nighthawks  are  found  —  for  they  are 
rather  local  in  distribution  when  nesting  —  you  may  hear 
a  strange  booming,  rushing  sound  ;  you  will  vainly  seek 
its  cause  until  you  chance  to  see  a  Nighthawk  with  set 
wings  diving  earthward  from  the  sky.  It  is  a  reckless 
performance,  and  you  may  suppose  the  bird's  object  is 
suicidal,  but,  when  within  a  few  yards  of  the  earth,  it 
will  turn  suddenly  upward.  At  this  moment  you  will 
hear  the  loud,  humming  sound,  doubtless  made  by  the 
air  passing  through  the  bird's  stiffened  wing-quills. 

Nighthawks,  being  insect-catchers,  are  of  course 
highly  migratory.  They  come  to  us  early  in  May,  and 
return  to  their  winter  quarters  in  South  America  in  Oc- 


PLATE  XXVIII. 


CHIMNEY  SWIFT. 

Length,  5'40  inches.    Sooty  black,  throat  grayish. 
145 


11 


146  CHIMNEY  SWIFT. 

tober.  During  the  fall  migrations  they  often  gather  in 
flocks  of  several  hundred,  and  as  they  sail  about  you 
may  notice  their  best  field  mark,  a  white  spot  in  each 
wing.  Nighthawks  lay  two  elliptical,  mottled  eggs  on 
the  bare  ground  or  a  flat  rock  in  open  fields,  and,  rarely, 
on  a  house  top  in  the  city. 

We  see  the  Mghthawk  and  hear  the  Whip-poor-will ; 

one  reason  perhaps  why  the  birds  are  so  often  confused. 

Whip-poor-will        While  the  Nighthawk  is  darting  through 

Antrostommvociferus.  the  sky,  the  Whip-poor-will  is  perched 

Plate  xxvii.  on  a  rock  or  fence  rail  below,  indus- 
triously whipping  out  a  succession  of  rapid  whip-poor- 
wills  interspersed  with  barely  audible  chucks.  When  the 
call  ceases,  the  bird  is  doubtless  coursing  low  through  the 
wooded  fields  and  glades  in  its  search  for  insects. 

During  the  day  the  Whip-poor-will  usually  rests  on 
the  ground  in  the  woods.  Here  also  the  eggs  are  laid, 
being  deposited  upon  the  leaves.  They  are  two  in  num- 
ber, dull  white,  with  delicate,  obscure  lilac  markings  and 
a  few  distinct  brownish  gray  spots. 

Whip-poor-wills  arrive  from  the  south  late  in  April, 
and  remain  with  us  until  October. 


SWIFTS.     (FAMILY  MICROPODID^E.) 

SWIFTS  are  the  most  aerial  of  all  the  small  land  birds. 

Our  Chimney  Swift,  the  only  one  of  the  seventy-five 

Chimney  Swift,       members  of  this  family  that  occurs  in 

ChcKtura  peiagica.      eastern  North  America,  is  but  five  and 

Plate  xxvni.        a  ^If    inches   long,  while    its   spread 

wings  measure  twelve  and  a  half  inches  from  tip  to  tip. 

Its  feet  are  proportionately  small,  and  so  weak  that  the 

bird  can  rest  only  by  clinging  to  an  upright  surface. 

The  tail  is  then  used  as  a  prop,  its  spiny-tipped  feathers 

being  evidently  a  result  of  this  habit. 


PLATE  XXIX. 

RUBY-THROATED   HUMMINGBIRD. 

Length,  3'75  inches.  Adult  male,  upper  parts  metallic  green  ;  throat  metal- 
lic ruby-red  ;  belly  grayish  ;  sides  greenish.  Adult  female  and  young,  simi- 
lar, but  throat  white. 

147 


148  HUMMINGBIRDS. 

Swifts  naturally  nest  in  hollow  trees  or  caves,  and  it 
is  only  in  the  more  densely  populated  parts  of  their 
range  that  they  resort  to  chimneys  and  outbuildings. 
The  nest  of  our  Chimney  Swift  is  a  bracketlike  basket 
of  small  twigs.  They  are  gathered  by  the  bird  while 
on  the  wing,  and  are  fastened  together  and  to  the  wall 
of  the  tree  or  chimney  with  a  glutinous  saliva. 

The  Chimney  Swift  arrives  from  the  south  about 
April  20,  and  remains  until  October.  Few  birds  are 
better  known,  and  under  the  name  of  "  Chimney  Swal- 
low" he  is  familiar  to  every  one  who  distinguishes  a 
Crow  from  a  Robin.  But,  beyond  similar  feeding  habits, 
Swifts  have  little  in  common  with  Swallows ;  in  fact,  are 
more  nearly  related  to  Hummingbirds. 

HUMMINGBIRDS.     (FAMILY  TROCHILIDJE.) 

HUMMINGBIRDS  are  peculiar  to  the  New  World.  About 
five  hundred  species  are  known,  but  only  one  of  them  is 
Ruby-throated  found  east  of  the  Mississippi.  This  is 

Hummingbird,  our  Ruby-throat,  the  sexes  of  which  are 
TrocUius  coiubris.  sometimes  thought  to  represent  differ- 
ent species.  The  Ruby -throat  winters 
as  far  south  as  Central  America,  but  about  May  1  we 
may  expect  him  to  return  to  us,  for  he  is  as  regular  in 
his  migrations  as  though  his  wings  measured  a  foot  and 
a  half  instead  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  If  you 
would  have  him  visit  you,  plant  honeysuckle  and  trum- 
pet flowers  about  your  piazza,  and  while  they  are  bloom- 
ing there  will  be  few  days  when  you  may  not  hear  the 
humming  of  this  tiny  bird's  rapidly  vibrating  wings. 

The  Ruby -throat  feeds  on  insects  as  well  as  on  the 
juices  of  flowers,  and  when  you  see  him  probing  a  corolla 
he  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  after  the  one  as  the  other.  The 
young  are  fed  by  regurgitation,  the  parent  bird  insert- 


FLYCATCHERS.  149 

ing  its  bill  into  the  mouth  of  its  offspring  and  injecting 
food  as  though  from  a  syringe. 

Some  tropical  Hummingbirds  have  songs  worthy  the 
name,  but  the  notes  of  our  Ruby-throat  are  a  mere 
squeak,  sometimes  prolonged  into  a  twitter. 

Under  any  circumstances  a  Hummingbird's  nest  ex- 
cites admiration.  But  if  you  would  appreciate  its  f airylike 
beauty,  find  one  where  the  birds  have  placed  it,  probably 
on  the  horizontal  limb  of  a  birch.  Doubtless  it  will  be 
occupied  by  the  female,  for  it  seems  that  the  male  takes 
little  or  no  part  in  family  affairs  after  incubation  begins. 
As  far  as  known,  all  Hummingbirds  lay  two  white  eggs 
— frail,  pearly  ellipses,  that  after  ten  days'  incubation 
develop  into  a  tangle  of  tiny  dark  limbs  and  bodies, 
which  no  one  would  think  of  calling  birds,  much  less 
"  winged  gems." 


PERCHING  BIRDS.     (ORDER  PASSERES.) 

FLYCATCHERS.     (FAMILY  TYRANNIDJE.) 

DOUBTLESS,  every  order  of  birds  has  had  its  day  when, 
if  it  was  not  a  dominant  type,  it  was  at  least  sufficiently 
near  it  to  be  considered  modern  ;  and  as  we  review  what 
is  known  to  us  of  that  great  series  of  feathered  forms, 
from  the  Archseopteryx  to  the  Thrushes,  we  can  real- 
ize how  varied  has  been  the  characteristic  avifauna  of 
each  succeeding  epoch  from  the  Jurassic  period  to  the 
present. 

Now  has  come  the  day  of  the  order  Passeres,  the 
Perching  Birds;  here  belong  our  Flycatchers,  Orioles, 
Jays,  Sparrows  and  Finches,  Yireos,  Swallows,  Warblers, 
Wrens,  Thrushes,  and  many  others.  A  recent  authority 
classifies  birds  in  thirty -four  orders,  but  fully  one  half  of 


150  KINGBIRD. 

the  thirteen  thousand  known  species  are  included  in  the 
single  order  Passeres.  The  North  American  members 
of  this  order  are  so  alike  in  more  important  structural 
details  that  they  are  placed  in  but  two  suborders,  the 
suborder  Clamatores,  containing  the  so-called  Songless 
Perching  Birds,  and  the  suborder  Oscines,  containing  the 
Song  Birds.  The  Flycatchers  are  the  only  members  of 
the  suborder  Clamatores  in  Eastern  North  America. 
They  differ  from  the  Oscines,  or  true  Song  Birds,  in 
always  having  ten  fully  developed  primaries,  in  having 
the  tarsus  rounded  behind  as  well  as  in  front,  and  chiefly 
in  the  anatomy  of  the  syrinx,  or  voice-producing  organ. 
In  the  Oscines  this  possesses  four  or  five  distinct  pairs  of 
intrinsic  muscles,  while  in  the  Clamatores  it  has  less  than 
four  pairs  of  muscles,  and  is  not  so  highly  developed. 

Flycatchers  are  the  Hawks  of  the  insect  world.  Their 
position  when  resting  is  erect,  and  they  are  constantly  on 
the  watch  for  their  prey,  which  is  captured  on  the  wing, 
with  a  dexterity  Hawks  may  well  envy.  The  bill  is 
broad  and  flat  and  the  gape  large,  as  in  other  fly-catching 
birds.  After  darting  for  an  insect,  as  a  rule,  they  return 
to  the  same  perch,  a  habit  which  betrays  their  family 
affinities,  though  it  is  occasionally  practiced  by  some 
other  birds. 

Among  our  Eastern  Flycatchers  the  Kingbird  un- 
doubtedly deserves  first  rank.  In  books  he  is  sometimes 
Kingbird,  called  the  Tyrant,  but  the  name  is  a 

Tyrannus  tyrannus.  libel.  The  Kingbird  is  a  fighter,  but 

Plate  xxx.  ]ie  -g  not  a  kuliy?  and  gives  battle  only 
in  a  just  cause.  His  particular  enemy  is  the  Crow,  and 
during  the  nesting  season  each  Kingbird  evidently  draws 
an  imaginary  circle  about  his  home  within  which  no 
Crow  can  venture  unchallenged.  From  his  lookout  on 
the  topmost  branch  of  a  neighboring  tree  the  Kingbird 
darts  forth  at  the  trespasser,  charging  him  with  a  spirit 


PLATE  XXX. 

KINGBIRD. 

Length,  8'50  inches.  Upper  parts  grayish  black  ;  tip  of  tail  and  under  parts 
white  ;  an  orauge-red  crown-patch.  Young,  similar,  but  without  orange-red 
in  crown. 

151 


152  CRESTED  FLYCATCHER. 

and  fearlessness  which  no  bird  can  withstand.  It  is  a  case 
of  "  right  makes  might,"  added  to  a  very  dexterous  use  of 
wings  and  bill.  The  Crow,  if  he  be  experienced,  turns 
tail  at  once  and,  beyond  protesting  squawks^  makes  no 
attempt  to  defend  himself.  But  the  Kingbird  is  deaf  to 
pleas  for  mercy ;  he  too  has  had  experience,  and  well 
knows  that  only  his  own  watchfulness  has  saved  his  eggs 
or  young.  Far  in  the  distance  he  relentlessly  pursues  his 
foe,  leaving  him  only  when  he  has  administered  a  lesson 
which  will  not  be  forgotten.  Then  he  returns  to  his  post 
and,  with  crest  erect  and  quivering  wings,  gives  voice  to 
cries  of  victory. 

Bee-keepers  accuse  the  Kingbird  of  a  taste  for  honey- 
bees, but  the  examination,  made  by  Prof.  Beal,  of  two 
hundred  and  eighteen  Kingbirds'  stomachs  shows  that 
the  charge  is  unfounded.  Only  fourteen  stomachs  con- 
tained remains  of  bees,  most  of  which  were  drones,  while 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  Kingbirds'  food  was  found  to  con- 
sist of  injurious  insects. 

Kingbirds  winter  in  Central  and  South  America,  re- 
turning to  us  in  the  spring  about  May  1,  and  remaining 
until  September.  Their  nest  is  a  compact,  symmetrical 
structure  of  weed  stalks,  grasses,  and  moss,  lined  with 
plant  down,  fine  grasses,  and  rootlets,  and  is  usually  placed 
at  the  extremity  of  a  limb  about  twenty  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  eggs,  three  to  five  in  number,  are  white, 
spotted  with  chocolate. 

The  Crested  or  Great  Crested  Flycatcher  is,  as  a  rule, 

not  so  common  as  the  Kingbird,  and  its  habits  prevent  it 

Crested  Flycatcher,     from  being  so  easily  observed.     King- 

Myiarchus  crinitus.    birds  can  be  seen  whenever  heard,  but 

Plate  xxxi.  yOU  mav  kear  ^  Greatcrest's  whistle 
many  times  before  you  see  the  whistler.  Generally  he 
lives  in  the  woods  high  up  in  the  trees,  but  he  is  also 
found  in  old  orchards.  His  call,  like  an  exclamation, 


PLATE  XXXI. 

CRESTED   FLYCATCHER. 

Length,  9'00  inches.    Upper  parts  brownish  olive-green  ;  inner  vane  of  tail- 
feathers  rusty  ;  breast  gray  ;  belly  pale  yellow. 

153 


154  PIKEBE. 

rings  out  above  all  other  birds'  notes.  What !  he  seems 
to  say,  and,  as  though  hearing  something  which  not  only 
surprised  but  amused  him,  follows  this  call  with  a  chuck- 
ling whistle. 

The  Greatcrest  arrives  from  the  south  about  May  7, 
and  remains  until  September.  Nesting  is  begun  early  in 
June,  a  hollow  limb  being  the  home  usually  selected.  In 
collecting  its  nesting  materials,  the  bird  displays  a  very 
singular  trait,  and  gives  evidence  of  the  stability  of  habit. 
With  rare  exceptions  it  places  a  bit  of  cast  snake-skin  in 
its  nest.  Various  reasons  have  been  advanced  to  account 
for  this  singular  habit,  but  none  of  them  is  satisfactory. 
Recently  Lieutenant  Wirt  Robinson  has  discovered  that 
one  of  the  commonest  and  most  generally  distributed  spe- 
cies of  this  genus  in  South  America  places  cast  snake-skin 
in  its  nest,  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  Arizona  Crested 
Flycatcher  follows  the  same  custom.  The  habit  is  there- 
fore widespread,  and  is  common  to  birds  living  under 
greatly  varying  conditions.  Rather  than  consider  it  of 
especial  significance  in  each  species,  it  seems  more  reason- 
able to  believe  that  it  is  an  inheritance  from  a  common 
ancestor,  and  has  no  connection  with  the  present  sur- 
roundings of  at  least  those  species  living  so  far  from  the 
center  of  distribution  of  this  tropical  genus  as  our  Myi- 
arckus  crinitus. 

The  Phoebe  is  domestic ;  he  prefers  the  haunts,  or,  at 

least,  handiwork  of  man,  and  when  not  nesting  on  a  beam 

Phoebe  *n  a  barn,  shed,  or  piazza,  selects  the 

Sayomis phffibe.       shelter  of  a  bridge  for  a  home.     Here 

Plate  xxxii.  he  p]aces  hig  nest  of  moss  and  mud  ;  a 
structure  of  generous  proportions,  for  the  Phoebe's  family 
may  number  five  or  six. 

Flycatchers,  because  of  the  nature  of  their  food,  usu- 
ally make  extended  migrations.  For  the  same  reason 
they  arrive  late  in  the  spring  and  depart  early  in  the 


PLATE  XXXII. 

PHCEBE. 

Length,  7'00  inches.    Back  dusky  olive  ;  crown  blackish  ;  under  parts  white 
tinged  with  yellow  ;  outer  margin  of  outer  tail-feathers  whitish  ;  bill  black. 

155 


156  LEAST  FLYCATCHER. 

fall ;  but  the  Phoebe  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Not 
only  does  he  winter  north  of  the  frost  line,  but  he  comes 
to  us  as  early  as  March  20  and  remains  until  October. 

The  Phoebe  owes  his  name  to  his  song  of  pewit-phoebe, 
pewit-phcebe,  a  humble  lay  uttered  between  vigorous 
wags  of  the  tail.  This  tail-wagging  is  a  characteristic 
motion,  and  also  accompanies  the  Phoebe's  call-note, 
pee,  pee,  which  it  utters  at  intervals. 

The  Least  Flycatcher  shares  the  Phoebe's  preference 
for  the  vicinity  of  houses  and  is  most  often  found  nesting 

in  our  shade  or  fruit  trees.     The  nest, 

Least  Flycatcher,  -,.,        .,         -r»,      ,    .  ,       f 

Empidonax  minimus.     UIlllke    tlie     Phoebe's,    IS    Composed    of 

plant-down,  fibers,  and  rootlets,  and  is 
placed  in  the  crotch  of  a  tree.  The  eggs  resemble  the 
Phoebe's  in  being  white. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  our  smaller  Flycatchers  so 
that  even  when  in  the  hand  they  mary  be  satisfactorily 
identified,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  describe  them  so 
that  from  color  alone  they  may  be  recognized  in  the  field. 
Fortunately,  the  calls  of  our  commoner  species  are  so 
unlike  that,  when  learned,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
naming  their  authors. 

To  say  that  the  Least  Flycatcher  is  five  and  a  half 
inches  long,  olive-green  above  and  grayish  white  below, 
does  not  aid  one  in  distinguishing  it  from  several  of  its 
cousins ;  but  when  I  add  that  its  call  is  a  snappy  chebec, 
chebec,  the  bird  will  be  known  the  first  time  it  is  heard. 
It  is  this  call  which  has  given  the  bird  its  common 
name. 

The  Chebec  comes  to  us  in  the  spring,  about  April  25, 
and  remains  until  September. 

You  will  rarely  find  two  members  of  the  same  family 
with  more  different  dispositions  than  those  of  the  King- 
bird and  Wood  Pewee.  Their  natures  might  symbolize 
war  and  peace,  so  combative  is  the  Kingbird,  so  gentle  the 


PLATK  XXXIII. 

WOOD  PEWEE. 

Length,  6-50  inches.    Upper  parts  dusky  olive-green  ;  under  parts  whitish, 
washed  with  dusky  ;  lower  mandible  yellowish. 

157 


158  WOOD   PEWEE. 

Pewee.     As  so  often  happens  among  birds,  their  voices 

are   in    keeping  with    their    temperaments.      The    soft, 

Wood  Pewee         dreamy  pee-a-wee  or  pee-a-wee  peer  of 

Contopus  virens.      the  Pewee  is  as  well  suited  to  its  char- 

Piate  xxxin.        acter  as  the  harsh,  chattering  cries  of 

victory  are  to  the  Kingbird's. 

The  Pewee  is  the  last  of  our  more  common  Fly- 
catchers to  come  from  the  South,  arriving  about  May  10, 
and,  like  the  Chebec,  remaining  until  October.  It  is  less 
social  than  either  the  Chebec  or  the  Phoebe.  Forests 
are  its  chosen  haunts,  but  occasionally  it  is  found  on  well- 
shaded  lawns  and  roadsides. 

The  Pewee' s  nest  rivals  the  Hummingbird's  in  beauty. 
It  is  a  coarser  structure,  composed  of  fine  grasses,  rootlets, 
and  moss,  but  externally  is  thickly  covered  with  lichens. 
Usually  it  is  saddled  on  a  limb  from  twenty  to  forty  feet 
above  the  ground.  The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number, 
are  white,  with  a  wreath  of  dark  brown  spots  around  the 
larger  end. 

LARKS.    (FAMILY  ALAUDID^E.) 

This  family  contains  the  true  Larks,  birds  with  long 
hind  toe  nails,  and  a  generally  brown  or  sandy  colored 
plumage,  the  Skylark  being  a  typical  species.  There  are 
some  one  hundred  species  of  Larks,  but  of  these  only  the 
Horned  Lark  and  its  geographical  varieties  are  found 
in  this  country. 

The  variation  in  color  shown  by  the  Horned  Lark 
throughout  its  range  is  remarkable.  From  the  Mexican 

Horned  Lark         tableland  northward  to  Labrador  and 

otocoris  alpestris.      Alaska  no   less   than   eleven  different 

Plate  xxxiv.        geographical  races  are  known,  each  one 

reflecting  the  influence  of  the  conditions  under  which  it 

lives,  and  all  intergrading  one  with  another.     Only  two  of 


PLATE  XXXIV. 

HORNED  LARK. 

Length,  775  inches.  Upper  parts  brownish  and  sandy  ;  front  and  sides  of 
crown,  sides  of  throat,  and  breast-patch  black  ;  forehead,  line  over  eye, 
and  throat  pale  yellow  ;  breast  dusky,  belly  white,  tail  black,  outer  feathers 
margined  with  white. 

159 


160  HORNED  LARK. 

these  races  are  found  in  the  eastern  United  States,  the 
Horned  Lark  and  the  Prairie  Horned  Lark.  The  former 
visits  us  in  the  winter;  the  latter  occurs  at  all  seasons, 
but  during  the  summer  is  found  only  in  certain  regions. 
At  this  season  it  inhabits  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley, 
whence  it  extends  eastward  through  northwestern  Penn- 
sylvania and  central  New  York  to  western  Massachu- 
setts. From  October  to  April  it  may  be  found  with  the 
Horned  Lark  as  far  south  as  South  Carolina.  The  two 
birds  differ  in  size  and  color.  The  Horned  Lark's  wing 
averages  4'2T  inches  in  length,  the  Prairie  Lark's  wing 
averages  but  4*08  inches  in  length ;  the  former's  forehead 
and  eye-line  are  yellow,  the  latter's  white. 

Horned  Larks  are  eminently  terrestrial,  rarely  if 
ever  choosing  a  higher  perch  than  a  fence.  When  on 
the  ground  they  do  not  hop,  but  walk  or  run.  When 
flushed  they  take  wing  with  a  sharp,  whistled  note,  but 
often  return  to  the  place  from  which  they  started.  When 
nesting,  they  may  be  found  in  fields,  pastures,  and  plains 
in  scattered  pairs,  but  during  the  winter  they  are  asso- 
ciated in  flocks,  which  resort  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sea- 
coast  or  large  open  tracts  in  the  interior.  The  nest  is, 
of  course,  built  on  the  ground.  The  eggs,  three  or  four 
in  number,  are  pale  bluish  or  greenish  white,  minutely 
and  evenly  speckled  with  grayish  brown. 

The  Horned  Lark,  like  its  famous  relative  and  many 
other  terrestrial  species,  sings  while  on  the  wing,  soaring 
high  above  the  earth,  and  often  repeating  its  song  many 
times  before  alighting.  The  effort  is  worthy  of  better 
results,  for  the  bird's  song  is  simple  and  unmusical. 


CROWS  AND  JAYS. 


CROWS,  JAYS,  ETC.     (FAMILY  CORVID^E.) 

There  are  systematists  who  think  that  the  members 
of  this  family  should  hold  the  place  usually  assigned  the 
Thrushes,  at  the  head  of  the  class  Aves.  Leaving  out  of 
the  case  anatomical  details  whose  value  is  disputed,  we 
might  object  to  a  family  of  songless  birds  being  given  first 
rank  in  a  group  whose  leading  character  is  power  of 
song.  But  while  Crows  and  Jays  may,  from  a  musical 
standpoint,  be  considered  songless,  no  one  can  deny  their 
great  vocal  powers.  Song,  after  all,  does  not  imply  high 
rank  in  bird-life,  and  some  of  the  sweetest  singers  (among 
others,  some  Snipe,  and  the  Tinamous  and  Wood  Quail 
of  South  America)  are  not  members  of  the  suborder  of 
Song  Birds. 

If,  however,  the  relative  intelligence  of  the  two  fam- 
ilies be  taken  into  account,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
CorvidcB  fully  deserve  to  be  considered  the  most  highly 
developed  of  birds.  How  many  tales  are  told  of  the 
human  actions  of  the  Raven,  Rook,  Jackdaw,  Magpie, 
Jay,  and  Crow ! 

Of  the  two  hundred  members  of  this  family,  six  in- 
habit eastern  North  America,  by  far  the  most  common 

being  the  Crow.     No  one  of  our  birds 
American  Crow,        .g  better  kn  and  gti]1  how  ignorant 

Cor 'V  us  americanus.  7 

we  are  of  his  ways  !  I  am  not  sure 
that  he  does  not  know  more  about  ours.  We  have  not 
even  recorded  his  notes,  for,  in  spite  of  the  current  opin- 
ion that  the  Crow's  calls  are  restricted  to  caw,  he  has  an 
extended  vocabulary.  I  am  not  aware  that  he  ever 
ascends  to  the  height  of  a  love  song,  but  that  he  can 
converse  fluently  no  one  who  has  listened  to  him  will 
question.  Of  the  variants  of  caw,  each  with  its  own 

significance,  there  seems  no  end ;  but  if  you  would  be 
12 


162  AMERICAN  CROW. 

impressed  with  the  Crow's  eloquence  you  musi;  hear  him 
when,  in  the  fancied  privacy  of  his  own  flock  or  family, 
he  discusses  the  affairs  of  the  day.  His  notes  then  are 
low,  and  so  varied  in  tone  that  one  can  not  doubt  their 
conversational  character. 

During  the  winter  Crows  assemble  in  large  flocks 
containing  many  thousand  individuals,  who  nightly  re- 
turn to  some  roost,  which  perhaps  has  been  frequented 
for  years.  In  March  they  begin  to  pair  and  the  nest  is 
constructed  early  in  April.  It  is  a  bulky  affair  of 
sticks,  lined  chiefly  with  grapevine  bark,  and  is  placed  in 
a  tree,  usually  about  thirty  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
four  to  six  eggs  are  bluish  green,  thickly  marked  with 
shades  of  brown. 

Crows  share  with  Hawks  the  reputation  of  being 
harmful  birds.  That  they  do  much  damage  in  the  corn- 
field is  undeniable,  but,  after  the  examination  of  nine 
hundred  Crows'  stomachs,  Dr.  Merriam,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  states  that  the  amount  of  good 
done  by  the  Crow  in  destroying  grasshoppers,  May 
beetles,  cutworms,  and  other  injurious  insects,  exceeds 
the  loss  caused  by  the  destruction  of  corn.  Moreover,  if 
the  corn  be  tarred  before  planting,  the  Crows  will  not 
touch  either  the  kernel  or  young  sprout.  The  corn 
should  first  be  soaked  in  water  overnight,  and  then 
placed  in  a  vessel  containing  enough  soft  tar  to  coat  each 
kernel.  It  should  then  be  rolled  in  plaster  of  Paris  or 
wood  ashes,  so  that  it  can  be  more  easily  handled.* 

The  Blue  Jay,  in  his  uniform  of  blue  and  white,  is  so 
brightly  colored,  so  large  (he  is  nearly  twelve  inches  in 
length),  and  often  so  noisy,  that  every  one  knows  him. 


*  See  Barrows  and  Schwarz,  The  Common  Crow,  Bulletin  No.  6, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Ornithology 
and  Mammalogy. 


BLUB  JAY.  163 

Like  the  Crow,  lie  is  with  us  throughout  the  year.     Dur- 
ing the  summer  he  is  not  very  common,  and  is  remark- 
ably quiet,  but  in  September  and  Octo- 

Cyanodtta^ltata.       ber  migrants  arri™  f  ™m  the  North,  and 

the  birds  are  then  abundant  in  bands. 
These  bands  roam  about  the  country  like  a  lot  of  school- 
boys out  chestnutting,  pausing  wherever  they  find  acorns 
and  chestnuts  abundant,  or  leaving  their  feast  to  worry 
some  poor  Owl  whose  hiding  place  they  have  discovered. 

The  Blue  Jay's  best  friend  could  not  conscientiously 
call  him  a  songster,  but  as  a  conversationalist  he  rivals 
the  Crow.  I  have  yet  to  discover  a  limit  to  his  vocab- 
ulary, and,  although  on  principle  one  may  ascribe  al- 
most any  strange  call  to  the  Blue  Jay,  it  is  well  to  with- 
hold judgment  until  his  loud,  harsh  jay  !  jay  !  betrays 
the  caller's  identity.  Not  content  with  a  language  of 
his  own,  he  borrows  from  other  birds,  mimicking  their 
calls  so  closely  that  the  birds  themselves  are  deceived. 
The  Red-shouldered,  Red-tail,  and  Sparrow  Hawks  are 
the  species  whose  notes  he  imitates  most  often. 

The  Blue  Jay  nests  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  build- 
ing a  compact  nest  of  rootlets  in  a  tree  ten  to  twenty 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  pale  olive-green 
or  brownish  ashy,  rather  thickly  marked  with  varying 
shades  of  cinnamon-brown. 


ORIOLES,  BLACKBIRDS,  ETC.     (FAMILY  ICTERID^E.) 

The  popular  names  of  many  of  our  birds  were  given 
them  by  the  early  colonists  because  of  their  fancied  re- 
semblance to  some  Old  World  species.  The  fact  that 
some  of  these  names  are  incorrect  and  misleading  has 
been  pointed  out  scores  of  times,  but  they  are  now  as 
firmly  fixed  as  the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 


164  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE. 

Thus  the  Robin  is  not  a  Robin  but  a  true  Thrush, 
the  Meadowlark  is  not  a  Lark  but  a  Starling,  and  the 
Orioles  are  not  Orioles  at  all,  but  members  of  a  distinc- 
tively American  family  having  no  representatives  in  the 
Old  World.  This  family  contains  oae  hundred  and  fifty 
species,  of  which  nearly  one  third  belong  in  the  genus 
Icterus.  The  prevailing  colors  of  the  birds  of  this  genus 
are  orange  and  black,  hence  their  resemblance  to  the  true 
Orioles  (genus  Oriolus)  of  the  Old  World. 

Our  Baltimore  Oriole  is  a  worthy  representative  of  a 

group  remarkable  for  its  bright  colors.     It  is  to  these 

Baltimore  Oriole       same  colors  that  the  bird  owes  not  only 

Icterus  gaibuia.       its  generic  but  its  specific  designation, 

Plate  xxxv.  orange  and  black  being  the  livery  of 
Lord  Baltimore,  after  whom  the  bird  was  named. 

The  Baltimore  Oriole,  or,  as  it  is  also  called,  Firebird, 
Golden  Robin,  or  Hangnest,  winters  in  Central  America, 
and  in  the  spring  reaches  the  latitude  of  New  York  city 
about  May  1.  I  always  look  for  it  when  the  cherry  trees 
burst  into  blossom,  and  at  no  other  time  does  its  beauti- 
ful plumage  appear  to  better  advantage  than  when  seen 
against  a  background  of  white  flowers.  To  the  charm  of 
beauty  it  adds  the  attraction  of  song,  a  rich,  ringing 
whistle,  which  can  be  more  or  less  successfully  imitated, 
when  the  bird  immediately  responds,  challenging  the 
supposed  trespasser  on  his  domain. 

The  Baltimore's  nest  is  a  bag  about  five  inches  deep 
and  three  inches  in  diameter,  woven  of  plant-fibers, 
thread,  etc.,  and  suspended  from  the  terminal  portion  of 
a  limb,  generally  of  an  elm  tree.  The  four  to  six  eggs 
are  white,  singularly  scrawled  with  fine  black  lines,  and 
with  a  few  spots  or  blotches. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  is  neither  so  common  nor  BO 
gayly  dressed  as  his  brilliantly  colored  relative,  and,  being 
fonder  of  orchards  than  lawns  and  elm -shaded  highways, 


PLATE  XXXV. 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLE. 

Length,  7'50  inches.  Male,  crown,  upper  back,  and  throat  black  ;  lower 
back,  outer  tail-feathers,  breast,  and  belly  rich  orange.  Female,  upper  parts 
mixed  black  and  yellowish,  rump  and  tail  dirty  yellow  ;  under  parts  dusky 
yellow. 

165 


106  ORCHARD  ORIOLE. 

is  not  so  well  known.     The  female  is  especially  easy  to 
overlook,  her  suit  of  plain  olive-green  closely  harmoniz- 

Orchard  Oriole,        ing  ™*h  the  leaves   iu  color-      Young 
Icterus  spurius.       males  at  first  exactly  resemble  her,  but 
Plate  xxxvi.        ^e  following   spring   return,  wearing 
their  father's  black  cravat.     In  this  plumage  they  might 
readily  be  taken  for  another  species,  so  little  do  they  re- 
semble their  parents  in  appearance.     The  adult  chestnut 
and  black  plumage  is  not  fully  acquired  until  the  sec- 
ond, or  perhaps  even  the  third  spring. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  winters  in  Central  America,  and 
in  the  summer  is  found  throughout  the  eastern  United 
States  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Massachusetts.  It 
arrives  from  the  South  about  May  1,  and  is  one  of  the 
first  birds  to  leave  in  the  fall,  rarely  being  seen  after 
September  1.  Nesting  is  begun  late  in  May.  The  nest 
is  pensile,  but  not  so  deep  as  that  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole, 
having  more  the  proportions  of  a  Yireo's  nest.  It  is 
composed  entirely  of  freshly  dried  greenish  grasses,  and 
is  suspended  from  near  the  extremity  of  a  branch  at  a 
height  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  The  three  to  five  eggs 
are  bluish  white,  spotted,  blotched,  and  scrawled  with 
black. 

The  song  of  the  Orchard  Oriole  resembles  that  of  his 
orange-and-black  cousin,  but  is  far  richer  in  tone  and 
more  finished  in  character. 

The  male  Redwing,  with  his  black  uniform  and  scar- 
let epaulets,  is  a  familiar  inhabitant  of  our  marshes,  but 
Red- winged  many  who  know  him  are  not  acquainted 

Blackbird,  with  his  very  differently  attired  mate. 
Ageiaius  piianiceus.  g^e  wearg  a  costume  which  above  is 
black  streaked  with  buff  and  rust-color,  and  below  is 
striped  dingy  black  and  white,  and  is  much  more  retiring 
than  her  conspicuous  husband.  Her  place  is  low  in  the 
bushes  or  among  the  reeds  near  the  nest  with  its  pale 


r 


v 


PLATE  XXXVI. 

ORCHARD  ORIOLE. 

Length,  7'30  inches.  Adult  male,  crown,  back,  and  throat  black,  rest  of 
body  chestnut.  Young  male,  upper  parts  olive-green  ;  throat  black,  rest 
of  under  parts  yellowish.  Female,  similar,  but  black  on  throat  replaced  by 
yellowish. 

167 


168  PURPLE  GRACKLE. 

blue  eggs,  so  singularly  scrawled  with  black.  He  perches 
on  the  topmost  branch  of  a  neighboring  tree,  and  doubt- 
less supposes  he  is  guarding  his  home  below,  when  in 
truth  he  is  advertising  his  treasure  to  every  passer-by. 

The  Redwing's  liquid  kong-quer-ree  is  pleasantly 
suggestive  of  marshy  pjaces,  but  it  is  his  early  spring 
music  for  which  we  should  chiefly  value  him.  The  first 
Robins  or  Bluebirds  are  somewhat  unreliable  signs  of 
spring.  They  are  such  hardy  birds  that  it  requires  very 
little  encouragement  from  a  February  sun  to  send  a  few 
skirmishers  northward.  We  can  not  be  sure  whether 
they  represent  the  advance  guard  or  are  individuals  who 
have  had  the  courage  to  winter  with  us.  But  when  early 
in  March  the  Redwings  come,  then  we  know  that  the  tide 
of  the  year  has  turned.  With  perennial  faith  in  the  sea- 
son they  come  in  flocks  of  hundreds,  singing  their  spring- 
time chorus  with  a  spirit  that  March  winds  can  not  sub- 
due. 

About  the  time  the  Redwings  come,  late  in  February 

or  early  in  March,  we  may  expect  the  Purple  Grackles 

Purple  Grackle,       or  Crow  Blackbirds.     They  migrate  in 

Quiscaius  quiscuia.    large  flocks,  and  their  chorus  singing 

Plate  xxxvii.       |g  qujte  as  inspiring  as  the  springtime 

concerts  of  the  Redwing.     There  are  two  kinds  of  Crow 

Blackbirds,  known  as  the  Purple  Grackle  and  the  Bronzed 

Grackle.     The  former  has  iridescent  bars  on  the  back 

and  in  the  Northern   States  is  found  only  east  of  the 

Alleghanies  and  south  of  Massachusetts;  the  latter  has 

the  back  shining,  brassy,  bronze,  without  iridescence,  and 

in  the  nesting  season  inhabits  the  country  west  of  the 

Alleghanies  and  north  of  Connecticut.     The  females  of 

both  species  are  smaller  and  duller  than  the  males. 

Grackles  are  among  the  few  of  our  land  birds  who 
live  in  flocks  all  the  year.  They  pass  the  winter  and  mi- 
grate in  larger  companies,  but  when  nesting  are  in  smaller 


A 


PLATE  XXXVII. 

PURPLE  GRACKLE. 

Length,  male,  12'50  inches  ;  female,  11 '00  inches.  Male,  head,  neck,  throat, 
and  breast  bright  metallic  blue,  purple,  or  green  ;  back  with  iridescent  bars  ; 
belly  paler  ;  eye  pale  yellow.  Female,  much  duller  than  male. 


170  BOBOLINK. 

bands  or  colonies.  They  generally  select  a  pine  grove, 
often  choosing  one  in  a  cemetery,  park,  or  other  locality 
where  they  will  not  be  disturbed.  This  may  result  in  a 
scarcity  of  food  when  the  young  are  born,  but,  rather 
than  abandon  a  locality  which  experience  has  proved  to 
be  safe,  they  make  long  journeys  in  search  of  food  for 
their  nestlings.  By  watching  the  old  birds  one  may  then 
easily  learn  where  they  live.  Their  flight  is  direct  and 
somewhat  labored,  and  when  going  only  a  short  distance 
they  "keel"  their  tail-feathers,  folding  them  upward 
from  the  middle,  an  action  which  renders  Grackles  con- 
spicuous and  easily  identifiable  when  on  the  wing.  On  the 
ground  they  strut  about  with  a  peculiar  walk,  which,  in 
connection  with  their  yellowish  white  eye,  adds  to  the 
singularity  of  their  appearance. 

The  Grackle's  nest  is  a  bulky,  compact  structure  of 
mud  and  grasses.  It  is  usually  placed  in  trees,  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  from  the  ground,  but  the  bird  may  sometimes 
nest  in  bushes  or  even  in  a  Woodpecker's  deserted  hole. 
The  three  to  six  eggs  are  generally  pale  bluish  green, 
strikingly  spotted,  blotched,  or  scrawled  with  brown  and 
black.  But  one  brood  is  raised,  and  when  the  young 
leave  the  nest  they  roam  about  the  country  in  small 
bands,  which  later  join  together,  forming  the  enormous 
flocks  of  these  birds  we  see  in  the  fall. 

The  Bobolink's  extended  journeys  and  quite  differ- 
ent costumes  have  given  him  many  aliases.  Throughout 
his  breeding  range,  from  New  Jersey  to  Nova  Scotia, 
Bobolink  an(*  westwar(^  to  Utah,  he  is  known 

Doiichonyx  while  nesting  as  the  Bobolink.  In 

oryzivorus.  July  and  August  he  loses  his  black, 

Plate  XXXVIII.        ^    ^     white    wedding    dress?    and 

gains  a  new  suit  of  feathers  resembling  in  color  those 
worn  by  his  mate,  though  somewhat  yellower.  This  is 
the  Reedbird  dress,  and  in  it  he  journeys  nearly  four 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 

BOBOLINK. 

Length,  7'25  inches.  Male,  in  summer,  nape  buff ;  shoulders  and  rump 
whitish  ;  crown  and  under  parts  black.  Female,  young,  and  male  in  win- 
ter, sparrowlike  ;  upper  parts  black,  brownish,  and  buffy  ;  under  parts  yel- 
lowish white. 

171 


1T2  BOBOLINK. 

thousand  miles  to  his  winter  quarters  south  of  the  Ama- 
zon. 

The  start  is  made  in  July,  when  he  joins  flocks  of 
his  kind  in  the  northern  wild-rice  (Zizania  aquatica) 
marshes.  Late  in  August  he  visits  the  cultivated  rice 
fields  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  it  is  at  this  sea- 
son we  so  often  hear  the  metallic  tink  of  passing  migrants. 
The  rice  is  now  in  the  milk,  and  the  Ricebirds,  or  Orto- 
lans, as  they  are  called  in  the  South,  are  so  destructive  to 
the  crop  that  it  is  estimated  they  directly  or  indirectly 
cause  an  annual  loss  of  $3,000,000.  Some  birds  linger 
as  far  north  as  New  York  until  October  1,  but  by  this 
time  the  leaders  of  the  south-bound  host  have  reached 
Cuba,  where  they  are  called  Chambergo.  From  Cuba 
they  pass  to  the  coast  of  Yucatan,  and  thence  southward 
through  Central  America  or  to  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
where,  because  of  their  extreme  fatness,  they  are  known 
as  Butterbirds.  From  Jamaica  they  go  to  the  mainland, 
either  of  Central  America,  or  by  one  continuous  flight  of 
four  hundred  miles  to  northern  South  America,  thence 
traveling  southward  to  their  winter  home. 

The  northward  journey  is  begun  in  March  or  April, 
and  about  the  25th  of  the  latter  month  the  vanguard 
reaches  Florida.  It  is  composed  only  of  males,  now 
called  Maybirds,  all  in  full  song.  Let  any  one  who 
knows  the  Bobolink's  song  imagine,  if  he  can,  the  effect 
produced  by  three  hundred  birds  singing  together ! 

About  May  1  Bobolinks  reach  the  vicinity  of  New 
York  city.  The  females  soon  follow  the  males,  and 
early  in  June  the  birds  are  nesting.  This  is  the  glad 
season  of  the  Bobolink's  year.  For  ten  months  he  has 
been  an  exile,  but  at  last  he  is  at  home  again,  and  he 
gives  voice  to  his  joy  in  the  jolliest  tinkling,  rippling, 
rollicking  song  that  ever  issued  from  bird's  throat. 

In  the  fields  made  merry  by  the  music  of  Bobolinks  one 


PLATE  XXXIX. 


MEADOWLARK. 


Length.  1075  inches.  Upper  parts  black,  brown,  and  buff  ;  under  parts  yel- 
low, a  black  crescent  on  the  breast,  sidt-s  streaked  with  black  ;  outer  tail- 
feathers  white. 

173 


MEADOWLARK. 

is  almost  sure  to  find  Meadowlarks.  They  are  strong- 
legged  walkers,  and  spend  all  their  time  while  feeding 
Meadowlark  on  *ne  ground.  Like  all  terrestrial, 
Stumetta  magna.  protectively  colored  birds,  they  often 
Plate  xxxix.  j-rv  ^o  escape  observation  by  hiding  in 
the  grasses  rather  than  by  flying.  When  perched  in  a 
tree  or  other  exposed  position,  they  are  among  the  shyest 
of  our  smaller  birds,  rarely  permitting  a  near  approach ; 
but  when  they  fancy  themselves  concealed  on  the  ground 
they  sometimes  "lie  as  close"  as  Bob-whites.  When 
flushed  they  fly  rapidly,  alternately  flapping  and  sailing, 
showing  as  they  fly  the  white  feathers  on  either  side  of 
their  tail.  These  feathers  are  the  Meadowlark's  best  field 
character.  They  are  very  conspicuous  when  he  is  on  the 
wing,  and,  when  perching,  if  he  is  alarmed  or  excited,  he 
exposes  them  by  nervously  flitting  or  twitching  his  tail. 
This  movement  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  single 
nasal  call-note,  which  changes  to  a  rolling  twitter  as  the 
bird  takes  wing.  Neither  of  these  notes  give  any  indi- 
cation of  the  sweetness  of  the  bird's  song,  a  high  musical 
whistle,  clear  as  the  note  of  a  fife,  sweet  as  the  tone  of  a 
flute.  It  is  subject  to  much  variation  both  individual 
and  local,  but  the  song  I  oftenest  hear  in  northern  New 
Jersey  may  be  written  : 


When  singing,  the  birds  usually  perch  in  an  exposed  po- 
sition, generally  choosing  the  topmost  branches  of  a  tree 
or  a  dead  limb. 

The  Meadowlark's  nest  is  placed  upon  the  ground,  as 
a  rule,  in  a  tuft  of  grasses  which  is  arranged  to  form  a 
dome  over  it.  The  eggs,  four  to  six  in  number,  are  laid 
about  May  15,  and  in  color  are  white,  spotted  or  speckled 
with  cinnamon  or  reddish  brown. 


• 


PLATE  XL. 

COWBIRD. 

Length,  7'90  inches.    Mate,  head  and  neck  all  around  dark  coffee-brown  ; 
rest  of  plumage  glossy  greenish  black.    Female,  dirty  brownish  gray  ;  throat 


whitish. 


175 


176  COWBIRD. 

Occasionally  Cowbirds  are   seen   during  the  winter 

near  New  York  city ;  but,  as  a  rule,  they  retire  farther 

Cowbird  south  at  this  season,  and  are  first  ob- 

Moiotkrus  ater.       served  there  in  the  spring  about  March 

Plate  XL.  2(j       rj^  do  not  come  in   large  floctfij 

but  singly  or  in  small  bands.  The  male  may  now  be 
seen  perched  in  an  exposed  position  on  a  treetop,  calling 
his  long-drawn-out,  glassy  Iduek,  tse-e-e.  Later,  when 
wooing  the  female,  he  utters  a  curious,  gurgling  note, 
resembling  the  sound  made  by  pouring  water  rapidly 
from  a  bottle,  and  accompanying  it  by  motions  which 
suggest  extreme  nausea.  We  often  see  these  birds  feed- 
ing near  cattle  in  the  pastures,  always  in  small  flocks,  for 
they  do  not  pair  nor  even  construct  a  nest,  the  female  lay- 
ing her  egg  in  the  nest  of  another  and  generally  smaller 
species.  Few  birds  seem  aware  of  the  imposture,  and 
not  only  do  they  incubate  the  egg  but  they  may  attend 
to  the  demands  of  the  young  Cowbird  at  the  expense  of 
their  own  offspring,  who  sometimes  die  of  starvation. 
Even  after  leaving  the  nest  the  young  parasite  continues 
its  call  for  food,  and  when  seeing  a  Maryland  Yellow- 
throat,  or  some  other  small  bird  feeding  a  clumsy  fledg- 
ling twice  its  size,  one  wonders  it  does  not  detect  the  de- 
ception. The  better  we  know  birds  the  more  strongly 
are  we  impressed  with  their  individuality.  To  one  who 
has  no  friends  in  feathers  it  seems  pure  fancy  to  endow 
some  insignificant  "  Chippy  "  with  human  attributes ;  but 
in  reality  there  are  as  clearly  defined  characters  among 
birds  as  among  men.  To  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
this  statement  we  have  only  to  compare  the  Cowbird,  a 
thoroughly  contemptible  creature,  lacking  in  every  moral 
and  maternal  instinct,  with  the  bird  who  constructs  a  well- 
made  nest,  faithfully  broods  her  eggs,  and  cares  for  her 
young  with  a  devotion  of  which  mother  love  alone  is 


P^ATE  XLI. 

SONG   SPARROW. 

Length,  6'25  inches.    Upper  parts  chestnut,  gray,  and  black  ;  under  parts 
white,  streaked  with  chestnut  and  black  ;  outer  tail-feathers  shortest. 


177 


13 


178  SONG  SPARROW. 


SPARROWS,  FINCHES,  ETC.    (FAMILY  FRINGILLID^S.) 

This,  the  largest  family  of  birds,  contains  between  five 
hundred  and  fifty  and  six  hundred  species,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  all  parts  of  the  world  except  the  Australian  re- 
gion. Sparrows  are  the  evergreens  among  birds.  When 
the  leaves  have  fallen  from  the  chestnut,  oak,  and  maple, 
the  hemlock,  pine,  and  cedar  are  doubly  dear.  So,  when 
the  Flycatchers,  Warblers,  and  Thrushes  have  left  us,  the 
hardy  Sparrows  are  more  than  usually  welcome.  Feed- 
ing largely  on  seeds,  which  their  strong,  stout  bills  are 
especially  fitted  to  crush,  they  are  not  affected  by  the 
changes  in  temperature  which  govern  the  movements  of 
strictly  insectivorous  birds. 

Some  species  are  with  us  throughout  the  year,  some 
come  from  the  South  in  early  spring  and  remain  until 
snow  falls,  others  come  from  the  far  North  to  pass  the 
winter ;  so  that  at  no  season  of  the  year  are  we  without 
numbers  of  these  cheery  birds.  Fortunately,  some  of  our 
best  songsters  are  members  of  this  family.  Their  music 
is  less  emotional  than  that  of  the  Thrushes,  but  it  has 
a  happier  ring — the  music  for  every  day. 

It  is  the  Song  Sparrow  who  in  February  opens  the 

Song  Sparrow,        season   of    song,    and  it  is   the   Song 

Meiospizafastiata.     Sparrow  who   in  November  sings  its 

Plate  XLL  closing  notes  ;  nor,  except  during  a  part 
of  August,  has  his  voice  once  been  missing  from  the  choir. 

His  modest  chant  always  suggests  good  cheer  and 
contentment,  but  heard  in  silent  February  it  seems  the 
divinest  bird  lay  to  which  mortal  ever  listened.  The 
magic  of  his  voice  bridges  the  cold  months  of  early 
spring  ;  as  we  listen  to  him  the  brown  fields  seem  green, 
flowers  bloom,  and  the  bare  branches  become  clad  with 
softly  rustling  leaves. 


PLATE  XLII. 

SWAMP  SPARROW. 

Length,  5'90  inches.  Summer  plumage,  crown  bright  chestnut ;  back  black, 
brown,  and  buff  ;  breast  grayish  ;  belly  white  ;  sides  brownish.  Winter 
plumage,  similar,  but  crown  streaked  with  chestnut-brown,  black,  and  gray. 

179 


180  SWAMP  SPARROW. 

You  can  not  go  far  afield  without  meeting  this  singer. 
He  is  not  only  our  commonest  Sparrow,  but  one  of  our 
commonest  birds.  Generally  you  will  find  him  on  or 
near  the  ground  at  the  border  of  some  undergrowth, 
and  if  there  be  water  near  by,  preferably  a  meadow 
brook,  his  presence  is  assured.  When  flushed  he  will 
doubtless  make  for  the  nearest  thicket,  "  pumping "  his 
tail,  as  Thompson  expressively  says,  in  describing  his 
somewhat  jerky  flight.  Now  he  questions  you  with  a 
mildly  impatient  chim/p  or  trink,  a  call-note  not  to  be 
mistaken  for  that  of  any  other  species,  when  once  you 
have  learned  it.  Equally  diagnostic  is  the  bird's  spotted 
breast  with  one  larger  spot  in  its  center. 

The  Song  Sparrow's  nest  is  usually  placed  on  the 
ground,  but  sometimes  a  bush  may  be  chosen  for  a  nest- 
ing site.  The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  bluish 
white,  thickly  marked  with  reddish  brown.  The  Song 
Sparrow  rears  three  broods  each  year,  the  nesting  season 
lasting  from  May  to  August. 

The   Swamp    Sparrow,  a  well-named  cousin  of  the 

Song  Sparrow,  resembles  his  relative  in  his  fondness  for 

Swamp  Sparrow,      the  vicinity  of  water  and  habit  of  tak- 

Meiospiza  georgiana.    ing  refuge  in  low  cover.     He  is  a  true 

Plate  XLII.  marsh  or  swamp  bird,  and  is  particu- 
larly abundant  in  large  marshes.  His  call  is  an  insig- 
nificant cheep,  while  his  song  is  a  simple,  sweet,  but  rather 
monotonous  tweet-tweet-tweet,  repeated  many  times  and 
occasionally  running  into  a  trill. 

The  Swamp  Sparrow  nests  from  northern  Illinois 
and  Pennsylvania  northward  to  Labrador.  Its  nest  and 
eggs  resemble  those  of  the  Song  Sparrow.  It  is  migra- 
tory in  the  northern  part  of  the  range,  and  is  rare  in  win- 
ter north  of  southern  New  Jersey. 

Both  the  Song  and  Swamp  Sparrow  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  birds  of  the  lowlands,  though  the  latter  also  inhab- 


PLATE  XLIII. 

FIELD  SPARROW. 

Length,  570  inches.    Upper  parts  bright  reddish  brown  and  black ;  under 
parts  grayish  white  ;  bill  reddish  brown. 

181 


182  FIELD  SPARROW. 

its  higher  ground,  but  the  two  Sparrows  now  to  be  men- 
tioned are  birds  of  the  uplands,  rarely  if  ever  living  in 
low,  wet  places. 

An  old  hillside  pasture,  dotted  with  young  cedars  or 
clumps  of  bushes,  in  which  he  may  place  his  nest,  is  the 

Field  Sparrow,       favorite  home  of  the   Field  Sparrow. 

Spizeiia  pusiiia.       Here  you  may  look  for  him  early  in 

Plate  XLIII.  April        He   ig   a   rather   ghy   birdj    who 

will  fly  some  distance  when  alarmed,  and  then  alight  on 
a  bare  twig  near  or  at  the  top  of  some  bush  or  sapling. 
Yery  different  this  from  the  Song  Sparrow's  way  of  div- 
ing into  a  bush. 

From  his  exposed  position  he  watches  you  and  gives 
you  an  equally  good  chance  to  watch  him.  Note  the 
whitish,  unstreaked  breast,  the  reddish  brown  or  sorrel 
crown,  the  gray  face  and  whitish  ring  about  the  eye,  and 
especially  the  pale  brownish  or  flesh-colored  bill.  These 
are  all  good  marks,  and  if  now  you  can  hear  him  sing  his 
identity  will  be  settled  without  question.  His  song  is  one 
of  the  most  pleasing  I  know.  It  is  very  simple  but  very 
expressive,  a  sweet,  plaintive  cher-wee,  cher-wee,  cher-wee, 
cheeo  dee-e-e-e-e,  which  goes  straight  to  one's  heart.  It  is 
sung  most  freely  after  sunset,  and  is  in  keeping  with  the 
peacefulness  of  the  evening  hour.  At  this  time,  too,  the 
bird  seems  inspired  to  more  than  usual  effort,  and  its  or- 
dinary song  is  often  so  elaborated  and  prolonged  as  to  be 
scarcely  recognizable. 

The  song  season  ends  in  the  latter  part  of  August, 
and,  although  the  birds  are  with  us  until  November,  I 
have  rarely  heard  them  sing  in  the  fall. 

The  Yesper  Sparrow,  Grass  Finch,  or  Bay-winged 
Bunting — for  he  bears  all  three  names — prefers  more 
open  grounds  than  the  Field  Sparrow  selects.  There  is 
something  free  and  spirited  about  this  bird  and  its  song 
which  demands  space  for  its  proper  development.  No 


PLATE  XLIV. 

VESPER  SPARROW. 

Length,  6'10  inches.  Upper  parts  grayish,  black,  and  brown ;  breast  and 
sides  streaked  with  black  and  brown  ;  belly  white  ;  lesser  wing-coverts  chest- 
nut ;  outer  tail-feathers  more  or  less  white. 

183 


184:  VESPER  SPARROW. 

swamp  or  thicket  will  do  for  him,  but  in  great  broad  fields 
he  is  at  home.     If  a  roadway  leads  through  his  haunts, 

Vesper  Sparrow,  7OU  may  °^en  see  mm  on  the  ground 
Pooccetes  gramineus.  ahead  of  you,  and  when  he  flies  the 

Plate  XLIV.  white  feathers  shown  on  either  side  of 
his  tail  will  give  you  an  excellent  clew  to  his  identity. 
Probably  he  will  fly  on  ahead  a  little  way  and  alight 
again  in  the  road,  or  a  longer  flight  may  lead  him  to  a 
neighboring  fence  or  the  upper  branches  of  a  more  dis- 
tant tree.  It  is  from  positions  of  this  kind  that  he  most 
often  sings.  With  him  song  is  evidently  a  matter  of  im- 
portance. He  can  not,  like  many  birds,  sing  between  the 
mouthfuls  of  a  meal,  but  ascending  to  his  perch  he  gives 
perhaps  half  an  hour  entirely  to  music,  resting  motionless 
between  the  intervals  of  each  song. 

It  is  impossible  to  satisfactorily  describe  this  song. 
It  resembles  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  but  is  finer  and 
wilder.  It  opens  with  one  low  note,  followed  by  two 
higher  ones,  while  the  Song  Sparrow  begins  with  three 
notes,  all  of  the  same  kind. 

The  Vesper  Sparrow  is  migratory,  coming  to  us  with 
the  Field  Sparrow  early  in  April  and  remaining  until 
November.  Its  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  the 
bluish  or  pinkish  white  speckled  eggs  are  laid  early  in 
May. 

It  is  strange,  is  it  not,  that  the  only  bird  we  all  detest 
should  also  be  the  only  one  who  insists  on  sharing  our 
homes  with  us.  The  House  or  English 
8l«nw.  »  a  F°*«*  of  the  times ;  a 
remarkably  keen-witted  bird,  who,  like 
a  noxious  weed,  thrives  and  increases  where  a  less  hardy 
species  could  not  exist. 

This  harsh- voiced  little  gamin  soon  detects  and  avoids 
anything  like  a  systematic  attempt  to  entrap  him,  and, 
being  productive  past  all  belief,  seems  likely  to  completely 


CHIPPING   SPARROW. 

Length,  5'35  inches.  Summer  plumage,  forehead  black  ;  crown  bright  chest- 
nut ;  back  black,  brown,  and  gray  ;  under  parts  gra3'ish  white  ;  bill  black. 
Winter  plumage,  similar,  but  crown  like  back  ;  bill  brownish. 

185 


186  CHIPPING  SPARROW. 

overrun  the  land.  He  was  introduced  into  this  country 
in  1851,  and  in  1870  was  found  only  in  the  cities  of  the 
Atlantic  States.  Now  he  has  spread  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

If  he  were  restricted  to  the  cities  we  should  have  only 
his  never-ceasing,  maddening  chatter  and  our  soiled  walls 
to  complain  of ;  but  he  has  invaded  not  only  the  towns 
and  villages  and  the  neighboring  houses,  but  visits  also 
our  grain  fields  and  fruit  orchards,  our  woods  and  marshes. 
~No  effective  method  for  his  extermination  has  been  de- 
vised, and  I  fear  we  must  accept  the  Sparrow  as  a  penalty 
for  the  shortsightedness  and  ignorance  which  permitted 
us  to  meddle  with  the  laws  of  Nature. 

If  we  except  this  ever-present  nuisance  the  Chippy 
is  the  most  domestic  of  our  Sparrows.  He  seems  thor- 

Chipping  Sparrow,  °ughly  at  nome  about  our  doorsteps ;  a 
Spizeiia  sodaiis.  contented,  modest  little  bird  who  ap- 
PiateXLV.  parently  tries  hard  to  believe  in  the 
goodness  of  human  nature,  even  though  he  meets  with 
but  little  encouragement.  One  wonders  why  he  has  not 
long  ago  given  up  the  attempt  to  make  friends  with  us, 
so  rarely  do  we  show  any  appreciation  of  his  advances. 
The  house  cat  is  Chippy's  chief  enemy.  Crouching  and 
crawling,  waiting  and  watching,  she  misses  no  opportunity 
to  pounce  on  an  unsuspecting  bird.  It  is  surprising  that 
any  escape.  But  each  spring,  about  April  10,  the  Chippy 
comes  back  to  us  after  a  winter  in  the  cotton,  corn,  and 
broom-sedge  fields  of  the  South,  and  soon  we  hear  his 
unpretentious,  monotonous  chippy -chippy -chippy ,  many 
times  repeated,  and  occasionally  running  into  a  grasshop- 
perlike  trill. 

About  a  month  later  we  may  find  further  evidence  of 
his  too  often  misplaced  trust  in  a  neat,  hair-lined  nest 
built  in  the  vines  on  the  veranda  or  a  neighboring  tree. 
The  eggs  are  unexpectedly  pretty,  a  bright  blue  or  bluish 


PLATE  XLVI.  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 

Length  6'75  inches.  Adult,  lores  and  bend  of  wing  yellow  ;  crown  black 
and  white ;  back  chestnut-brown,  black,  and  buff ;  throat  white ;  breast 
and  sides  grayish  ;  belly  white.  Young,  similar,  but  crown  more  like  back  ; 
yellow  markings  duller. 


188  WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW. 

green,  spotted,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon- 
brown  or  blackish  markings. 

Up  to  this  time  the  Chippy  has  given  us  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  see  his  chestnut  cap  and  black  forehead,  but 
when  the  nesting  season  is  over  he  will  change  these  for 
a  cap  to  match  his  coat,  and  with  others  of  his  kind  gather 
in  old,  weedy  fields,  remaining  there  until  cold  weather 
drives  him  southward. 

About  the  time  of  the  first  frost  a  new  Sparrow  will 
appear  in  the  hedgerows  and  thickets  and  the  under- 
wits-throated growth  of  the  woods.  The  white  patch 
Sparrow,  on  his  throat  may  aid  in  his  identifica- 
ZonotricUa  alUcoiUs.  tion  as  the  White-throated  Sparrow,  a 
Northern  bird  who  in  the  summer 
nests  from  northern  New  England  northward,  and  in 
winter  is  found  from  southern  New  England  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

He  is  disposed  to  be  rather  quiet  for  several  days 
after  his  arrival,  and,  beyond  a  few  low  notes  addressed 
to  his  companions,  has  little  to  say ;  but  if  you  whistle 
to  him  even  a  poor  imitation  of  his  song,  nearly  every 
bird  in  the  company  will  hop  up  from  the  tangle  of 
branches  and,  perching  on  the  outer  twigs,  look  for  the 
friends  who  called.  Perhaps  some  may  essay  a  tremulous 
response,  but  for  a  week  or  more  they  will  make  few  at- 
tempts to  sing.  Later,  you  will  hear  the  sweet,  plaintive 
notes  that  give  to  this  bird  the  name  Peabody-bird. 

The  White-throat's  call-notes  are  a  low  tseep  and  a 
very  characteristic  sharp  chink,  which  has  been  well 
likened  by  Mr.  Bicknell  to  the  sound  of  a  marble  cut- 
ter's chisel.  At  this  season  the  White-throats  roost  to- 
gether in  flocks  of  varying  size,  and  if  you  chance  to  be 
near  their  home  at  bedtime  you  will  hear  this  chink  note 
given  as  a  "quarriers'  chorus."  Finally,  as  the  gloom 
deepens,  it  will  cease,  and  from  the  dark  depths  of  the 


PLATE  XL VII. 

FOX  SPARROW. 

Length,  7'25  inches.  Upper  parts,  wings,  and  tail  bright  reddish  brown  ; 
back  and  head  mixed  with  a  browner  color  ;  under  parts  white  and  bright 
reddish  brown. 

189 


190  FOX  SPARROW. 

thicket  will  come  only  the  cozy,  contented  twitterings  of 
the  birds  wishing  one  another  good  night. 

The  interest  with  which  one  examines  a  flock  of  White- 

throated   Sparrows  is  intensified  by  the   probability  of 

White-crowned  finding  their  distinguished  relative  the 

Sparrow,  White-crown.     In  the  Mississippi  Val- 

Zonotrichia  ley  he   is   often   common,  but  in   the 

ucophrys. 


to  be  a  character  of  importance. 

The  White-crown  differs  from  the  White-throat  in 
having  no  white  on  the  throat,  which,  like  the  breast,  is 
gray,  and  in  having  the  space  before  the  eye  black  in- 
stead of  yellow  or  white.  In  the  fall  his  crown  is  brown, 
with  a  paler  line  through  its  center. 

Near  New  York  city  I  look  for  the  White-crown 
in  September  and  October,  and  again  about  May  15. 
Thompson  describes  its  song  as  "  like  the  latter  half  of 
the  White-throat's  familiar  refrain,  repeated  a  number 
of  times  with  a  peculiar  sad  cadence  and  in  a  clear,  soft 
whistle." 

Some  fine  day  about  the  middle  of  March  you  may 
hear  a  song  so  unlike  any  you  have  ever  heard,  that  be- 

Fox  Sparrow,  ^ore  *ne  smger  ceases  you  will  know 
Passereiia  iliaca.  you  are  on  the  verge  of  a  discovery. 

Plate  XLvri.        The  song  ^  ^^  exceedingly  sweet; 

and  varied.  Its  richness  of  tone  seems  to  accentuate  the 
bleakness  of  the  bird's  surroundings.  It  is  a  song  for 
summer,  not  for  leafless  spring;  but  heard  at  this  sea- 
son it  seems  all  the  more  attractive,  and  with  pleasurable 
excitement  you  hasten  toward  the  second  growth,  near 
the  border  of  which  the  bird  is  perched.  His  large  size 
and  bright  reddish  brown  upper  parts  readily  distinguish 
him  from  other  Sparrows,  and,  in  connection  with  his 
spotted  breast,  give  him  a  general  resemblance  to  a  Hermit 
Thrush,  for  which  bird  he  is  sometimes  mistaken  ;  but  a 


PLATE  XLVIII. 

JUNCO. 

Length,  6-25  inches.  Male,  upper  parts,  throat,  and  breast  slate-color  ;  belly 
and  outer  tail-feathers  white.  Female,  similar,  but  plumage  more  or  less 
washed  with  brownish. 

191 


192  JUNCO. 

glance  at  his  short,  stout  bill  at  once  shows  his  family  rela- 
tionships, and  you  should  have  no  difficulty  in  identifying 
him  as  the  Fox  Sparrow. 

A  month  later  he  will  leave  us  for  his  summer  home 
in  the  far  North,  but  in  October  and  November  his 
ringing  notes  may  again  be  heard  as  he  pauses  a  day  or 
two  on  his  journey  southward. 

After  the  Fox  Sparrows  go,  our  bird-life  is  reduced  to 
its  winter  elements — that  is,  permanent  residents  and  win- 
Junco  ter  visit311*8-  Of  tne  latter  the  Junco 

junco  hyemaiia.  or  Slate-colored  Snowbird  is  the  com- 
Piate  XL viii.  monest  and  most  generally  distributed. 
Although  we  call  this  bird  a  winter  visitant,  he  is  with 
us  nearly  eight  months  in  the  year,  arriving  late  in  Sep- 
tember and  remaining  until  early  May. 

The  Junco  is  one  of  the  birds  whose  acquaintance  can 
be  easily  made.  His  suit  of  slaty  gray,  with  its  low-cut 
vest  of  white,  is  not  worn  by  any  other  of  our  birds ;  and 
while  some  species  show  white  outer  tail-feathers  in  flight, 
the  Junco's  seem  to  be  more  than  usually  conspicuous. 

Except  when  nesting,  Juncos  associate  in  loose  flocks 
of  from  ten  to  fifty.  Generally  you  will  find  them  feed- 
ing on  the  ground  near  evergreens,  into  which,  when  dis- 
turbed, they  will  fly  with  a  twittering  note.  If  they  are 
excited  by  your  appearance  you  will  hear  a  sharp,  kissing 
call ;  but  if  unalarmed  they  will  utter  a  rapidly  repeated 
chew-chew -chew,  expressive  of  the  utmost  contentment. 
In  March  and  April,  before  leaving  for  their  summer 
home  in  northern  New  England  or  the  crests  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  Catskills,  the  Juncos  sing  a  simple  trill 
or  low,  twittering  warble.  Modest  in  manner  and  attire, 
there  is  nothing  of  especial  interest  in  the  Junco's  habits, 
and  only  bird-lovers  can  understand  what  a  difference  his 
presence  makes  in  a  winter  landscape.  It  brings  a  sense 
of  companionship ;  it  is  a  link  between  us  and  Nature. 


L 


PLATE  XLIX. 

TREE   SPARROW. 

Lengt.i,  6.35  inches.  Crown  bright  chestnut  ;  back  black,  reddish  brown, 
and  buffy  ;  under  parts  grayish  ;  sides  washed  with  brownish  ;  a  blackish 
spot  in  the  center  of  the  breast. 


14 


193 


194:  TREE  SPARROW  AND  REDPOLL. 

The  bird's  cheery  twitter  is  as  welcome  as  a  ray  of  sun- 
light on  a  cloudy  day. 

With  the  Juncos  we  may  often  find  a  company  of 
Tree  Sparrows  or  Winter  Chippies.  They  resemble  our 

Tree  Sparrow  familiar  Chipping  Sparrow,  but  the 
Spizetta  monticoia.  blackish  dot  in  the  center  of  their 

Plate  XLIX.  breasts  is  a  good  distinguishing  mark. 
Then,  too,  the  true  Chippies  all  leave  for  the  South  in 
November,  while  the  Winter  Chippies  come  in  October 
and  remain  until  April. 

Tree  Sparrows  are  sociable  birds,  with  apparently  the 
best  of  dispositions.  They  are  usually  found  in  small 
companies,  each  member  of  which  seems  to  have  some- 
thing to  say.  Watch  them  feeding  on  an  old  weed  stalk 
left  uncovered  by  the  snow.  It  bends  beneath  the  weight 
of  half  a  dozen  birds,  but,  far  from  attempting  to  rob  one 
another,  they  keep  up  a  conversational  chatter  bespeaking 
the  utmost  good  fellowship.  Too-la-it,  too-la-it,  each  one 
calls,  and  I  have  only  to  remember  this  note  to  bring 
clearly  to  mind  a  bright  winter  morning  with  the  fresh 
snow  crystals  sparkling  in  the  sunshine,  and  in  the  dis- 
tance a  tinkling  chorus  of  Tree  Sparrows  at  breakfast. 

Another  winter  associate  of  the  Junco's,  and  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  the  Tree  Sparrow's,  is  the  Redpoll,  Red- 
Bedpoll  P°H  Linnet,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes 

AcantUs  Unaria.  called,  Red -capped  Chippy.  The  Red- 
Plate  L.  po]|  negts  in  tlie  far  North?  and  the 

extent  of  his  southern  journeys  depends  very  much  upon 
the  supply  of  food  he  finds  in  his  winter  wanderings. 
When  there  are  seeds  in  abundance  north  of  the  United 
States,  we  do  not  see  many  of  these  birds,  but  if  the 
larder  fails  they  may  come  into  New  England  in  great 
numbers,  and  a  few  may  venture  as  far  south  as  Yirginia. 
One  can  not  tell,  therefore,  when  to  expect  them,  but  it 
is  well  to  be  on  the  lookout  from  November  to  March. 


, 


PLATE  L. 

REDPOLL. 

Length,  5'30  inches.  Adult  male,  crown  bright  red  ;  back  brownish  black 
and  grayish  ;  throat  black  ;  under  parts  white,  streaked  with  black  ;  breast 
pink.  Adult  female  and  young,  similar,  but  no  pink  on  breast. 

SNOWFLAKE. 

Length,  6'90  inches.  Upper  parts  brown  and  black  ;  wings  and  tail  black 
and  white  ;  under  parts  white  ;  breast  and  sides  brownish. 

195 


19G  SNOWFLAKE  AND  CROSSBILL. 

With  the  Tree  Sparrows  and  Juncos,  Redpolls  feed  on 
the  seeds  of  plants  left  uncovered  by  the  snow,  and  they 
also  include  birch  buds  in  their  fare. 

None  of  our  winter  birds  better  illustrate  the  nock- 
ing habit  than  the  Snowflakes,  Snow  Buntings,  or,  as  they 

Snowflake,  are  a^so  called,  White  Snowbirds.  With 
Piectrophenax  nivalis.  a  uniformity  of  movement  which  would 
Plate  L.  put  f.o  gname  the  evolutions  of  the  best- 

drilled  troops,  they  whirl  over  the  snow-clad  fields,  wheel- 
ing to  right  or  left,  as  though  governed  by  a  single 
impulse.  Suddenly  they  swing  downward  into  a  weedy 
field,  alighting  on  the  snow  or  ground,  where  they  run — 
not  hop  about — like  little  beach  birds.  Sometimes,  it  is 
said,  they  sing  on  the  wing  while  with  us,  but  their  usual 
note  is  a  low  chirp.  They  are  terrestrial  birds,  and,  al- 
though they  may  often  perch  on  fences  or  buildings,  are 
rarely  seen  in  trees. 

Snowflakes  nest  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and,  like 
other  of  our  winter  birds  that  come  from  the  far  North, 
are  irregular  in  their  movements.  As  a  rule  they  do  not 
wander  much  south  of  Long  Island  and  northern  Illinois, 
but  occasionally  they  go  as  far  as  Virginia  and  Kansas, 
and  are  thus  among  the  possibilities  which  add  so  much 
to  the  pleasure  of  winter  days  in  the  field. 

The  Crossbill  is  a  possibility  at  any  season.  None  of 
our  birds  is  more  erratic  in  its  migrations.  As  a  rule,  it 

is  found  in  the  Middle  States  only  be- 

American  Crossbill,  .    -r  *?  *    -r 

Loxia  curmrostra         tween    November    and   March,   but   I 

minor,  have    seen    it    in   Central   Park,  New 

York   city,  as    late   as   May.     In   the 

higher  parts  of  the  Alleghanies  and  in  northern  New 

England  it  is  resident  throughout  the  year.     Crossbills 

usually  wander  as  far  south  each  winter  as  Connecticut, 

but  beyond  this  are  of  irregular  occurrence. 

They  feed  almost  entirely  upon  the  seeds  of  pines,  and 


PLAT:;  LI. 

AMERICAN    CROSSBILL. 

Length.  6'20  inches.  Adult  male,  dull  red  ;  back  brownish  ;  wings  and  tail 
blackish.  Adult  female  and  young,  greenish  ;  back  more  or  less  mottled 
with  brownish  ;  the  under  parts  grayish. 

PINE  GROSBEAK. 

Length,  9'10  inches.  Adult  male,  rose-pink  ;  back  brownish  ;  lower  belly 
gray  ;  wings  and  tail  brownish  black.  Adult  female  and  young,  gray  ;  crown, 
upper  tail-coverts,  and  breast  washed  with  deep  yellow. 

197 


198  PINE  GROSBEAK. 

are  not  often  seen  far  from  coniferous  trees.  Their  sin- 
gular bill  might,  at  first  glance,  be  considered  misshapen, 
but  if  you  will  watch  a  Crossbill  push  his  crossed  mandi- 
bles beneath  the  scale  of  a  pine  cone,  and  with  a  quick 
twist  force  it  off  and  secure  the  seed  at  its  base,  you  will 
readily  admit  that  for  the  bird's  purposes  his  bill  could 
not  be  easily  improved. 

In  hunting  for  Crossbills  it  is  a  good  plan  to  look 
through  the  woods  for  falling  scales  of  pine  cones,  and 
when  you  see  a  shower  of  them  whirling  softly  down- 
ward it  behooves  you  to  learn  the  cause  of  their  descent. 
The  birds  often  follow  them  to  the  ground,  to  secure  the 
seeds  which  have  dropped  there. 

Crossbills  fly  in  compact  flocks,  and  often  utter  a 
sharp,  clicking  note  while  on  the  wing.  Their  song  is 
sweet  and  varied  but  not  loud. 

Pine  Grosbeaks  are  among  our  rarer  winter  visit- 
ants. They  come  as  far  south  as  Massachusetts  in  vary- 
Fine  Grosbeak  mg  numbers,  and  occasionally  reach 

Pinicola  enucleator.      Connecticut,    but    SOUth    of    this    point 

Plate  LI.  are  of  verv  infrequent  occurrence.  At 

irregular  intervals  Pine  Grosbeaks  become  abundant  dur- 
ing the  winter  in  New  England,  when,  because  of  their 
size,  they  attract  general  attention.  They  usually  resort 
to  coniferous  trees,  upon  the  seeds  of  which  they  feed, 
but  they  also  eat  berries  and  buds,  and  are  said  to  be  espe- 
cially fond  of  the  fruit  of  the  staghorn  sumach. 

No  one  seeing  the  Goldfinch  or  Yellowbird  in  his 

summer  costume  of  gold  and  black  would  imagine  that  so 

Goldfinch,  dainty  a  creature  could  brave  the  storms 

Spinus  tristis.  of  winter ;  but  late  in  the  season,  when 
Plate  LII.  h'g  home  iife  is  ended,  he  changes  the 

gay  wedding  dress  for  a  plainer  suit,  and  joins  the  ranks 
of  winter  birds. 

I  wish  that  every  one  knew  the  Goldfinch.     His  gen- 


PLATE  LII. 


AMERICAN  GOLDFINCH. 
Length,  5'10  inches.    Adult  male  in  summer,  crown  black  ;  rest  of  body  yel- 
low ;  wings  and  tail  black  and  white.    Adult  female  and  males  in  winter, 
upper  parts  grayish  brown ;  crown  yellowish  ;  under  parts  soiled  whitish ; 
throat  yellow. 

199 


200  GOLDFINCH. 

tie  ways  and  sweet  disposition  are  never-failing  antidotes 
for  discontent.  One  can  not  be  long  near  a  flock  of 
these  birds  without  being  impressed  by  the  refinement 
which  seems  to  mark  their  every  note  and  action.  They 
show,  too,  a  spirit  of  contentment  from  which  we  may 
draw  more  than  a  passing  lesson.  Hear  me,  hear  me, 
dearie,  they  call  as  they  feed  among  the  weeds  or  on  the 
birch  buds,  ami,  no  matter  how  poor  the  fare,  they  seem 
thankful  for  it.  The  seeds  of  the  dandelion,  thistle,  and 
sunflower  are  among  their  favorites ;  and  if  you  would 
attract  Goldfinches  as  well  as  some  other  birds,  devote  a 
corner  of  your  garden  to  sunflowers. 

The  meal  finished,  the  birds  launch  into  the  air,  and  to 
the  tune  of  a  cheery  per-chw-o-ree,  per-ch\c-o-ree,  go 
swinging  through  space  in  long,  bounding  undulations. 

In  April  the  males  regain  their  bright  colors,  but  they 
are  evidently  believers  in  prolonged  courtship,  and,  al- 
though the  nuptial  dress  is  acquired  so  early,  housekeep- 
ing is  apparently  not  thought  of  until  June.  Then  a  neat 
home  of  bark  and  fine  grasses,  thickly  lined  with  plant 
down,  is  placed  in  a  bush  or  tree,  five  to  thirty  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  in  it  are  laid  three  to  six  pale,  bluish- 
white  eggs. 

Now  the  song  season  has  reached  its  height.  Chorus 
singing  has  been  abandoned.  Each  bird  has  become  an 
inspired  soloist,  who,  perched  near  his  home  or  flying  in 
broad  circles  about  it,  pours  forth  a  flood  of  melody.  It 
is  an  exceedingly  attractive  song,  sweet  and  varied  and 
suggesting  a  Canary's,  but  still  is  no  more  like  it  than  a 
hothouse  is  like  a  tropical  forest. 

Creole.,  creak,  the  notes  are  clear  but  faint,  and  may 
Purple  Finch,        come  from  any  place  beyond  arm' s  reach. 
Carpodacuspwpurem.  They  are   the    Purple   Finch's    flight- 
Plate  LIII.  ca]]g  .  one  might  think  his  wing-joints 

needed    oiling.      Alighting   on   the   topmost  twig  of  a 


PLATE  LIII. 

PURPLE  FINCH. 

Length,  6'20  inches.  Adult  male,  rose-pink  ;  back  brownish  ;  lower  belly 
white  ;  no  white  in  wings.  Adult  female  and  young,  upper  parts  streaked 
brownish  and  grayish  ;  under  parts  white,  streaked  with  brownish ;  bill 
rounded  on  top  ;  a  tuft  of  bristly  feathers  over  the  nostrils. 

201 


202  PURPLE  FINCH. 

forest  tree,  lie  utters  a  low,  wild,  questioning  whistle. 
With  crown-feathers  slightly  erect  he  seems  alert  and 
restless,  and  before  we  can  fairly  see  him  is  off  again  to 
parts  unknown. 

Purple  Finches,  in  small  companies,  may  often  be 
seen  feeding  near  the  ground  with  Goldfinches,  but  if 
alarmed  they  soon  return  to  the  tree  tops.  The  old  males 
may  be  known  by  their  pinkish  red  color,  which  is  bright- 
est on  the  head  and  breast,  and  fades  to  brownish  on  the 
lower  back  and  tail  and  white  on  the  belly.  The  young 
males  and  females  are  Sparrowlike  in  appearance,  the 
upper  parts  being  dark  grayish  brown,  the  under  parts 
white,  streaked  with  dusky.  A  whitish  line  passing  over 
the  eye  is  a  characteristic  mark. 

During  the  winter  Purple  Finches  are  irregularly  dis- 
tributed throughout  most  of  the  Eastern  States,  but  in 
summer  they  are  not  found  south  of  northern  New  Jer- 
sey. They  now  become  more  social  and  may  nest  in  our 
gardens.  Generally  a  coniferous  tree  is  selected,  and  the 
nest  of  twigs,  grasses,  and  rootlets  is  placed  at  a  height  of 
about  twenty  feet.  The  eggs,  four  to  six  in  number,  are 
blue,  spotted  with  dusky  about  the  larger  end. 

Count  yourself  fortunate  if  a  Purple  Finch  makes  his 
home  near  yours.  He  may  appropriate  a  few  buds  and 
blossoms,  but  he  will  repay  you  with  music  and  leave  you 
his  debtor.  His  song  is  a  sweet,  flowing  warble ;  music 
as  natural  as  the  rippling  of  a  mountain  brook. 

Some  morning  early  in  May  you  may  meet  the  Rose- 
breasted  Grosbeak,  just  returned  from  a  winter's  sojourn 

in  South  America.     Perhaps  his  fame 

Bose-breasted  .  .  £  .,, 

Grosbeak    W1"  nave  preceded  him,  when  you  will 

Zameiodia  in  a  measure  be  prepared  for  his  charms 

ludovidana.  of  son£  an(j  plumage,  and  so  miss  the 

Plate  LIV 

keener  pleasure  of  surprise ;  but  to  me 
he  appeared  as  a  revelation,  and  after  fifteen  years  I  still 


ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

Length,  8'10  inches.  Adult  male,  crown  and  back  black  ;  rump  white  ; 
throat  black  ;  breast  rose-red  ;  belly  white.  Adult  female,  upper  parts 
dark  brown  and  buff  ;  a  white  line  over  eye ;  under  parts  buffy,  streaked 
with  brownish  ;  under  wing-coverts  orange. 


204  TOWHEB. 

find  it  difficult  to  believe  that,  unknown  to  me,  this  beau- 
tiful creature  could  long  have  been  an  inhabitant  of  my 
woods. 

The  Grosbeak  prefers  young  second  growths,  with  a 
liberal  proportion  of  oaks.  In  one  of  these  trees  he  will 
doubtless  build  his  nest,  a  structure  so  lightly  made  that 
one  can  almost  see  the  blue,  spotted  eggs  from  below. 
The  male  is  not  only  an  ardent  lover  but  an  admirable 
husband,  and,  unlike  most  brightly  attired  birds,  shares 
with  his  mate  the  task  of  incubation,  and,  it  is  said, 
sings  while  on  the  nest.  His  mate  is  so  unlike  him  in 
color  that  few  would  suspect  their  relationship.  She 
suggests  an  overgrown  female  Purple  Finch,  with  the 
eye-stripe  especially  prominent ;  but  if  you  should  chance 
to  see  the  under  surface  of  her  wings,  you  would  find 
that  they  were  lined  with  gold.  However,  the  call-notes 
of  both  sexes  are  alike — a  sharp,  characteristic  peek,  which 
you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  after  you  have 
learned  it. 

The  Grosbeak's  song  will  remind  you  of  a  Robin's, 
but  it  is  in  truth  a  much  higher  type  of  bird  music. 
It  is  a  joyous  carol,  expressive  of  a  happy  disposition 
and  a  clear  conscience. 

The  Towhee,  or  Chewink,  is  an  important  member  of 
any  bird  community.  He  comes  early — April  20  may 

Towhee  ^n(^  ^m  w^  us — and  he  stays  late, 

Pipilo  sometimes  remaining  until  November  1. 

erytTiropUJialmm.   During  this  period  there  is  not  an  hour 

Plate  LV.  -    ,,    fe   ,         r  ,  "  j 

of  the  day  when  you  can  not  mid  a 
Chewink  if  you  know  how  to  look  for  him.  At  midday 
you  will  perhaps  have  to  summon  him  by  a  whistled  to- 
whee  from  the  depths  of  his  bushy  home  on  the  border  of 
a  wood  or  thicket ;  but  he  will  soon  respond,  and  with  a 
fluff-fluff  of  his  short,  rounded  wings,  fly  jerkily  up  to 
inquire  what's  wanted. 


PLATE  LV. 

TOWHEE. 

Length,  8  35  inches.    Adult  male,  upper  parts,  throat,  and  breast  black  ; 
belly  white  ;  sides  reddish  brown.     Adult  female,  similar,  but  black  replaced 

by  brownish. 

205 


206  INDIGO  BUNTING. 

Some  birds,  such  as  the  Red-eyed  Vireo,  can  sing  just 
as  well  while  hunting  food  as  at  any  other  time  ;  in  fact, 
I  do  not  remember  ever  seeing  a  Red-eye  pause  long 
in  its  search  for  insects — song  and  search  go  on  together. 
But  with  the  Chewink  singing  is  a  serious  matter,  not  to 
be  associated  with  the  material  question  of  food ;  so,  when 
singing,  he  abandons  the  dead  leaves  he  has  been  tossing 
about  so  vigorously,  and,  mounting  a  perch,  becomes  an 
inspired  if  not  gifted  musician.  Sweet  bird,  sing,  a  friend 
writes  it,  the  "  sing  "  being  higher,  sustained,  and  vibrant. 
To  this  there  is  often  a  refrain  which  suggests  an  an- 
swering, tremulous  Pll  try. 

Matins  or  vespers  over,  the  Chewink  returns  to 
the  ground  and  resumes  his  occupation  of  scratching 
among  the  leaves  for  breakfast  or  supper,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

The  Chewink's  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  often  in 
dried  grass,  beneath  a  tangle  of  running  wild  blackberry. 
The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  white,  finely  and 
evenly  speckled  with  reddish  brown. 

There  are  three  birds  who  sing  not  only  through  the 
heat  of  midsummer  but  are  undaunted  by  the  warmth  of 
a  midday  sun.  They  are  the  "Wood 

Pevee> the  Eed-eyed  Vireo> and  the  In- 

digo-bird  or  Bunting.  The  Pewee  and 
Vireo,  singing  dreamily  from  the  shady  depths  of  a  tree, 
carry  the  air  to  the  hummed  accompaniment  of  insects; 
but  the  Bunting,  mounting  to  an  upper  branch,  gives 
voice  to  a  tinkling  warble,  more  in  keeping  with  the 
freshness  of  early  morning  than  the  languor  of  noon. 
July,  July,  summer-summer's  here;  morning,  noontide, 
evening,  list  to  me,  he  sings  so  rapidly  that  human  tongue 
can  scarce  enumerate  the  words  fast  enough  to  keep  pace 
with  him.  The  Indigo-bird  is  in  song  when  he  comes  to 
us  from  the  South  early  in  May,  but  it  is  not  until  other 


CARDINAL.  207 

singers  have  dropped  from  the  chorus  that  his  voice  be- 
comes conspicuous. 

Not  far  away  his  mate  is  doubtless  sitting  on  her  blu- 
ish white  eggs  in  a  nest  low  down  in  the  crotch  of  a  bush. 
He  in  his  deep  indigo  costume  may  be  easily  identified, 
but  she  is  a  dull  brownish  bird,  about  the  size  of  a  Ca- 
nary, sparrowlike  in  appearance,  though  with  unstreaked 
plumage,  and  a  difficult  bird  to  name,  even  when  you 
have  a  specimen  in  your  hand,  while  in  the  bush,  if  silent, 
she  is  a  puzzle.  But  she  is  far  too  good  a  mother  not  to 
protest  if  you  venture  too  near  her  home,  and  her  sharp 
pit  orpeet  usually  calls  her  mate,  whom  you  will  recog- 
nize at  once. 

The  Cardinal  is  about  the  size  of  a  Towhee,  with 
plumage  which,  except  for  a  black  throat,  is  almost 

wholly  rosy  red.      Seeing   a  mounted 
Cardinal,  i^      ,.      ,  .   ,       .         .          ,         , 

Cardinal  cardinal  Cardinal,  one   might  imagine  that  he 

was  a  conspicuous  bird  in  life  and  easy 
to  observe ;  but  the  truth  is  -that,  in  spite  of  his  bright 
colors,  the  Cardinal  is  a  surprisingly  difficult  bird  to  see. 
You  may  often  hear  his  sharp,  insignificant  tsip  without 
catching  a  glimpse  of  the  caller,  so  well  can  he  conceal 
himself.  His  olive-brown  mate  is,  of  course,  even  more 
difficult  to  find,  and  when  you  do  see  her  you  would 
hardly  suspect  the  relationship  were  it  not  for  her  actions 
and  the  striking  crest  worn  by  both  sexes. 

The  Cardinal's  song  is  a  rich,  sympathetic  whistle. 
His  mate  also  sings  at  times,  and  I  carry  in  my  memory 
a  musical  courting  I  once  observed,  in  which  a  pair  of 
these  beautiful  birds  were  the  actors.  The  song  begins 
with  whee-you,  whee-you,  long-drawn  notes,  which  are 
followed  by  a  more  rapid  hurry,  hurry,  hurry ;  quick, 
quick,  quick,  and  other  notes  difficult  of  description. 
The  Cardinal  is  a  bird  of  the  Southern  rather  than  of 
the  Northern  States,  and  is  rarely  seen  north  of  New 


208  LARK  FINCH. 

York  city.  It  is,  however,  a  permanent  resident  through- 
out its  range,  and  to  one  who  associates  it  with  magnolias 
and  yellow  jessamine  it  seems  strangely  out  of  place  amid 
snowy  surroundings. 

The  Cardinal  builds  its  nest  about  four  feet  from  the 
ground  in  thickets,  laying  three  or  four  eggs,  which  are 
white  or  bluish  white,  speckled  and  spotted  with  grayish 
or  reddish  brown. 

In  the  Mississippi  Yalley  and  westward  there  are  sev- 
eral members  of  this  family  who  are  rarely  found  east 

Lark  Finch  °f  the  Alleghaiiies.  Prominent  among 

Chondestes  them  is  the  Lark  Finch,  a  handsome 

grammacus.  ^^  about  six  and  a  quarter  inches 
long,  with  ear-coverts  and  sides  of  the  crown  chestnut, 
the  back  grayish  brown  streaked  with  black,  the  outer 
tail-feathers  tipped  with  white,  and  the  under  parts 
white,  with  a  single  black  spot  in  the  center  of  the 
breast. 

This  is  a  migratory  bird >  arriving  in  southern  Illinois 
about  the  middle  of  April  and  remaining  until  September 
or  October.  Mr.  Ridgway,  in  his  Birds  of  Illinois,  says 
that  its  favorite  resorts  are  "  fertile  prairies  and  meadows 
adjoining  strips  or  groves  of  timber.  In  Illinois  it  evinces 
a  special  fondness  for  cornfields,  in  which  it  builds  its 
nest  at  the  foot  of  the  stalks,  while  the  male  sings  from 
the  fence  or  the  top  of  a  small  tree  by  the  roadside." 

Its  song,  the  same  writer  continues,  is  "  composed  of 
a  series  of  chants,  each  syllable  rich,  loud,  and  clear,  in- 
terspersed with  emotional  trills.  At  the  beginning  the 
song  reminds  one  somewhat  of  that  of  the  Indigo-bird 
(Passerina  cyanea\  but  the  notes  are  louder  and  more 
metallic,  and  their  delivery  more  vigorous.  Though 
seemingly  hurried,  it  is  one  continuous  gush  of  sprightly 
music  ;  now  gay,  now  melodious,  and  then  tender  beyond 
description — the  very  expression  of  emotion." 


PLATE  LVI. 

DICKCISSEL. 

Length,  6'00  inches.  Adult  male,  back  black,  chestnut,  and  grayish  ;  lesser 
wing-coverts  bright  chestnut ;  chin  white  ;  throat  black  ;  breast  yellow  ; 
belly  white.  Adult  female,  upper  parts  streaked  black  and  grayish  ;  throat 
white  ;  breast  yellowish,  with  black  streaks  ;  belly  white. 

209 

15 


210  DICKCISSEL. 

Some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  the  Dickcissel,  or 
Black-throated  Bunting,  was  a  locally  common  bird  in 

Dickcissel  *ne  Middle  Atlantic  States.  Now  it  is 

Spiza  americana  rarely  found  east  of  the  Alleghanies, 

Plate  LVI.  ancj  even  m  the  Mississippi  Valley  its 
range  is  becoming  restricted,  and  it  is  of  irregular  distri- 
bution. 

It  migrates  in  large  flocks,  the  males  in  the  spring 
being  several  days  in  advance  of  the  females.  About 
May  1  it  reaches  the  latitude  of  Chicago,  and  by  the  mid- 
dle of  the  month  is  mated.  The  nest  is  placed  on  the 
ground,  or  in  low  trees  or  bushes  ;  the  eggs,  four  or  five 
in  number,  are  pale  blue. 

In  the  work  previously  quoted  from,  Mr.  Ridgway 
writes  of  this  species :  "  While  some  other  birds  are 
equally  numerous,  there  are  few  that  announce  their 
presence  as  persistently  as  this  species.  All  day  long, 
in  spring  and  summer,  the  males,  sometimes  to  the  num- 
ber of  a  dozen  or  more  for  each  meadow  of  considerable 
extent,  perch  upon  the  summits  of  tall  weed  stalks  or 
fence-stakes,  at  short  intervals,  crying  out :  See,  see — 
Dick,  Dick  Cissel,  Cissel ;  therefore  '  Dick  Cissel '  is  well 
known  to  every  farmer's  boy  as  well  as  to  all  who  visit 
the  country  during  the  season  of  clover  blossoms  and  wild 
roses,  when  '  Dame  Nature '  is  in  her  most  joyous  mood." 

TANAGERS.     (FAMILY  TANAGRID^E.) 

The  Tanagers,  numbering  some  three  hundred  and 
fifty  species,  are  found  only  in  America.  Their  home 
is  in  the  tropics,  where  they  are  among  the  most  abun- 
dant of  birds.  But  two  species  reach  the  eastern  United 
States,  the  Summer  Redbird  of  the  South  and  our  Scar- 
let Tanager,  both  worthy  representatives  of  a  group 
of  birds  which  in  brilliancy  of  color  rival  even  the  Hum- 


SCARLET  TANAGER.  211 

mingbirds.    The  male  Scarlet  Tanager,  with  fire-red  body 
and  jet-black  wings  and  tail,  is  the  most  brightly  plum- 

aged    of    our    birds.      Seen   against  a 
Scarlet  Tanager        ]eaf     background   light  seemg  to  radi. 

riranga,  erytnromelas.  *  °>  . 

ate  from  his  glowing  feathers.  But 
the  female,  clad  in  dull  olive-green,  is  so  in  harmony 
with  the  color  of  her  surroundings  that  she  is  not  easily 
discovered.  The  young  male  at  first  resembles  his  mother, 
but  has  blackish  wings  and  tail,  and  does  not  acquire  the 
full  scarlet  and  black  plumage  until  the  following  spring. 
After  the  nesting  season  is  over  the  male  exchanges  the 
nuptial  dress,  which  has  rendered  him  so  conspicuous,  for 
a  costume  similar  to  that  worn  by  the  young  male. 

The  Scarlet  Tanager  spends  the  winter  in  Central  and 
South  America  with  his  numerous  relatives,  and  in  the 
spring  reaches  the  latitude  of  New  York  city  about  May 
5,  remaining  until  October.  It  frequents  both  high  and 
low  woods,  but  prefers  rather  open  growths  of  white  oak. 
Its  nest  is  usually  placed  on  the  horizontal  branch  of  an 
oak  limb.  The  three  or  four  eggs  are  pale  greenish  blue, 
with  numerous  reddish  brown  markings. 

The  Tanager'  s  call-note  is  a  characteristic  chip-churr  ; 
his  song  is  not  unlike  the  Robin's,  but  is  not  so  free  and 
ringing.  Mounting  to  the  topmost  branch,  often  of  a 
dead  or  partially  dead  tree,  he  sings,  Look-up,  way-up, 
look-at-me,  tree-top,  and  with  frequent  pauses  repeats  the 
invitation. 


SWALLOWS.    (FAMILY  HIRUNDINID^E.) 

Primarily,  Swallows  are  remarkable  for  their  power 
of  flight.  Their  long,  bladelike  wings  show  how  well  they 
are  fitted  for  life  in  the  air;  their  small  feet,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  of  little  service  except  in  perching,  and 
give  evidence  of  the  effect  of  disuse  (see  Fig.  6). 


212  SWALLOWS. 

The  aerial  ability  of  Swallows  accounts  for  their  wide 
distribution,  the  eighty  known  species  being  represented 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Only  six  of  them  inhabit  the 
northeastern  States,  but  they  are  so  active  and  so  easily 
observed,  that  they  rank  among  our  most  abundant  and 
best-known  birds. 

Swallows  are  eminently  insectivorous.  The  Tree  Swal- 
low is  known  to  feed  on  bayberries  when  its  usual  fare  is 
wanting,  but,  with  this  exception,  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
but  insect  food  passes  a  Swallow's  bill  from  one  year's 
end  to  another.  Recalling  now  the  activity  of  Swallows, 
which  both  necessitates  a  large  supply  of  food  and  pro- 
cures it,  and  we  must  realize  that  these  birds  are  incal- 
culably beneficial. 

Both  the  feeding  habits  and  powers  of  flight  of  Swal- 
lows are  such  as  their  structure  would  lead  us  to  expect, 
but  when  we  examine  their  nests  we  aje  amazed  at  the 
architectural  skill  of  builders  so  poorly  provided  with 
tools.  The  large  mud  pocket  of  the  Barn  Swallow,  the 
clay  retort  of  the  Cliff  Swallow,  and  the  long  burrow 
which  the  Bank  Swallow  excavates,  are  surely  not  the 
kind  of  homes  we  should  expect  these  small-billed,  weak- 
footed,  dainty  creatures  to  construct.  We  will  note,  too, 
that  these  feathered  architects  are  quick  to  perceive  and 
take  advantage  of  the  new  and  favorable  conditions  for 
nest-building  found  about  the  home  of  man. 

The  Bank,  Rough-winged,  and  Tree  Swallows,  and 
the  Purple  Martin,  lay  white  eggs  ;  the  eggs  of  the  Barn 
and  Cliff  Swallows  are  speckled  with  cinnamon,  olive,  and 
reddish  brown. 

It  is  when  nesting  that  Swallows  best  show  one  of 
their  strong  characteristics — their  sociability.  Many  birds 
live  in  flocks  during  part  of  the  year,  but  separate  in  pairs 
when  nesting ;  but  most  Swallows  live  on  terms  of  such 
intimacy  that  their  nests  seem  to  be  merely  apartments  in 


SWALLOWS.  213 

one  great  dwelling.  A  photograph  of  part  of  a  colony 
of  Cliff  Swallows  in  Montana  shows  one  hundred  and 
forty  nests,  nearly  all  of  which  adjoin  one  another. 

The  songs  of  Swallows  are  humble  efforts,  but  are  so 
expressive  of  the  happy  dispositions  of  the  birds,  and  so 
associated  with  scenes  with  which  they  are  inseparably 
connected,  that  the  merry  twitterings  of  these  birds  are 
as  dear  to  us  as  the  voices  of  friends. 

The  sociability  of  Swallows  does  not  end  with  the 
nesting  season,  as  it  does  with  many  birds  that  are  then 
brought  into  communities  by  force  of  circumstances. 
When  the  young  take  wing,  Swallows  begin  to  collect 
in  flocks,  which  gradually  unite,  and  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember form  assemblages  containing  millions  of  individ- 
uals. They  generally  make  their  headquarters  in  some 
large  marsh,  where  they  roost  in  the  reeds  and  grasses, 
but  they  also  resort  to  trees.  Early  in  the  morning  they 
scatter  over  the  country  in  small  bands,  flying  at  a  con- 
siderable height,  and  during  the  day  we  may  often  see 
them  feeding  over  fields  and  ponds  or  resting  on  wayside 
telegraph  wires.  Late  in  the  afternoon  they  begin  to  re- 
turn to  their  roosts.  At  first  they  fly  slowly  and  circle 
about  to  feed,  but  as  the  light  fails  they  fly  with  increas- 
ing swiftness,  and  the  last  comers  shoot  through  the  dusk 
with  incredible  rapidity. 

These  remarks  apply  with  equal  truth  to  all  our  Swal- 
lows ;  it  remains  now  to  briefly  mention  the  characters 
by  which  they  may  be  distinguished  specifically.  The 
four  common  species  are  figured  in  the  frontispiece, 
which  clearly  shows  most  of  their  diagnostic  marks, 
which  are :  Tail  forked,  Barn  Swallow ;  forehead  whit- 
ish, rump  rusty,  Cliff  Swallow  ;  a  band  across  the  breast, 
plumage  without  metallic  colors,  Bank  Swallow ;  breast 
pure  white,  Tree  Swallow. 


SWALLOWS. 


The  Barn  Swallow  is  the  most  generally  distributed 
of  our  Swallows,  its  habits  of  nesting  in  outbuildings 
Barn  Swallow        making  it  at  home  wherever  they  offer 
it  a  suitable  nesting  place.     It  is  about 
seven  inches  long  ;  the  upper  parts  and 


tispiece.) 

forehead  and  throat  chestnut,  the  rest  of  the  under  parts 
paler  ;  the  tail  deeply  forked  and  marked  with  white.  Its 
long  tail  is  a  most  efficient  rudder,  permitting  the  abrupt 
turns  which  make  its  flight  more  erratic  than  that  of  any 
other  of  our  Swallows.  It  skims  low  over  the  fields,  or 
darts  through  the  village  streets  with  a  rapidity  and  indi- 
rectness which  I  never  witness  without  astonishment. 

The  Barn  Swallow  arrives  from  its  winter  home  in 
the  tropics  about  April  15  and  remains  until  late  in 
September.  Its  nest  is  generally  placed  on  a  beam  in 
a  barn  or  other  outbuilding,  and  is  composed  of  mud 
and  grasses  lined  with  feathers. 

The  Cliff  or  Eave  Swallow  is  less  generally  distributed 
than  the  Barn  Swallow.  It  nests  in  colonies,  placing  its 

rows  of  mud  tenements  under  cliffs  in 
din  Swallow. 

the  West  and  beneath  the  eaves  of  barns 


lunifrons.  in  the  East.    It  becomes  much  attached 

(Frontispiece.)          ^    ^   localitj?  and  when    undisturbed 

returns  to  it  year  after  year,  arriving  from  the  South 
about  May  1,  and  remaining  until  late  September.  It  is 
six  inches  long  ;  the  forehead  is  whitish,  the  crown  and 
back  steel-blue,  the  rump  rusty  ;  the  throat  chestnut  with 
a  blackish  area  ;  the  belly  white. 

Like  the  Cliff  Swallow,  the  Bank  Swallow  nests  in 
colonies,  and  is  very  local  during  the  breeding  season.  A 

Bank  Swallow  sandbank  facing  a  stream  or  pond  is 
Clivicola  riparia.  often  chosen  f  or  a  home.  Into  it  a 

(Frontispiece.)  tunnel  two  or  three  feet  in  length  is 
bored,  and  at  its  end  a  nest  of  grasses  and  feathers  is  built. 


TREE  SWALLOW.  215 

The  Bank  Swallow  winters  in  the  tropics  and  reaches 
us  in  the  spring  about  April  20,  remaining  until  late  Sep- 
tember. It  is  the  smallest  of  our  Swallows,  measuring 
only  five  inches  in  length,  and  is  the  only  one,  except  the 
Rough-winged  Swallow,  which  has  no  metallic  coloring 
in  its  plumage,  the  back  being  plain  brownish  gray,  the 
under  parts  white,  with  a  cloarly  defined  brownish  gray 
band  across  the  breast.  The  Rough-wing  is  a  more  south- 
ern bird,  being  rare  north  of  southern  Connecticut.  It 
resembles  the  Bank  Swallow,  but  differs  chiefly  in  having 
the  whole  breast  brownish  gray.  It  nests  in  holes  in 
banks,  and  also  about  stone  bridges,  trestles,  and  similar 
structures. 

Though  very  generally  distributed,  there  are  large 
areas  within  the  breeding  range  of  the  Tree  Swallow 

Tree  Swallow         where  it  is  known  only  as  a  migrant. 
Tacky dneta  bicoior.    In  the  wilder  part  of  its  range  it  nests 

(Frontispiece.)        in  }lonow  trees  .   m  the  more  settled 

portions  it  uses  bird-boxes.  During  recent  years,  as  Mr. 
Brewster  has  remarked,  the  always-present  Hou&e  Spar- 
row has  pre-empted  the  former  abodes  of  the  Tree  Swal- 
low, GO  that  it  no  longer  nests  about  our  homes ;  but  as 
a  migrant  its  numbers  are  undiminished,  and  it  is  prob- 
ably our  most  abundant  Swallow. 

Being  the  only  Swallow  to  winter  in  the  eastern 
United  States,  the  Tree  Swallow  is  the  first  to  arrive  in 
the  spring,  coming  to  us  from  Florida  early  in  April.  It 
is  also  the  last  of  its  family  to  leave  us  in  the  fall,  often 
remaining  near  New  York  city  until  October  20. 

Immature  birds  have  the  upper  parts  brownish  gray 
instead  of  shining  steel-blue,  as  in  the  adult,  but  in  either 
plumage  the  bird  may  be  known  by  its  pure  white  under 
parts,  which  have  given  to  it  the  name  of  White-bellied 
Swallow. 

In  the  northern  United  States  Martins  are  very  local. 


216  CEDAR  WAXWING. 

They  have  long  since  abandoned  their  habit  of  building  in 

hollow  trees,  and  now  nest  only  about  houses  or  in  lawns 

where  gourds  or  boxes  are  erected  for 

Purple  Martin,       their  occupation.     To  these  they  return 

±*rogne  subis.  ... 

year  after  year,  arriving  in  the  spring 
about  April  25  and  remaining  until  September.  The 
male  is  uniform  steel-blue,  and  appears  black  in  the  air ; 
the  female  is  grayish,  tinged  with  steel-blue  above ;  the 
breast  is  gray,  the  belly  white.  This  is  the  largest  of 
our  Swallows,  measuring  eight  inches  in  length. 


WAXWINGS.    (FAMILY  AMPELID^:.) 

One  of  the  two  species  of  Waxwing  is  a  bird  of  the  far 
North ;  the  other,  our  Cedar  Waxwing,  is  found  through- 
Cedar  Waxwing,  ou^  North  America.  Waxwings  pos- 
Ampeiis  cedrorum.  scss  in  an  unusual  degree  two  charac- 

Piate  LVII.  teristics  which  are  not  supposed  to  be 
associated — sociability  and  silence.  None  of  our  birds  is 
more  companionable,  none  more  quiet.  In  their  fondness 
for  one  another's  society  they  seem  to  delay  the  pairing 
season,  and  long  after  other  birds  have  gone  to  house- 
keeping they  are  still  roving  about  in  flocks.  Finally, 
late  in  June,  they  settle  down  and  build  a  nest  of  generous 
proportions,  often  in  some  fruit  tree,  about  ten  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  three  to  five  eggs  are  pale  bluish  gray 
or  putty-color,  spotted  with  black  or  brownish  black. 

Waxwings  fly  in  close  rank  and  alight  as  near  each 
other  as  the  nature  of  their  perch  will  allow.  They  sit 
very  still,  like  little  Parrots  or  Doves,  but  often  raise  and 
lower  their  crests,  and  perhaps  whisper  a  fine  lisping  note, 
which  is  prolonged  into  a  louder  call — a  string  of  beady 
notes — as  they  take  wing. 

Their  fare  varies  with  the  season — cedar  berries,  straw- 
berries, cherries,  both  cultivated  and  wild,  the  berries 


PLATE  LVII. 

CEDAR  WAXWING. 

Length,  7'20  inches.  Grayish  brown  ;  upper  tail-coverts  gray  ;  lower  belly 
yellowish  ;  end  of  tail  yellow  ;  secondaries  sometimes  with  red,  sealing-wax- 
like  tips  ;  stripe  through  face  black. 

217 


218  NORTHERN  SHRIKE. 

of  the  woodbine,  sour  gum,  and  others  being  taken  in 
turn. 

In  August  the  Waxwing  shows  no  mean  gifts  as  a 
flycatcher,  while  as  a  destroyer  of  the  cankerworm  he  is 
especially  beneficial,  repaying  us  with  interest  for  the 
fruit  he  may  have  appropriated  earlier  in  the  season. 

The  Waxwing's  wide  range  and  ability  to  withstand 
great  extremes  in  temperature  are  doubtless  due  to  the 
ease  with  which  it  adapts  itself  to  a  change  in  fare.  It 
nests  from  Virginia  to  Labrador,  and  winters  from  Massa- 
chusetts to  Costa  Rica. 


SHRIKES.    (FAMILY 

The  marked  difference  in  the  temperament  of  birds  is 
emphasized  by  finding  among  the  song  birds,  who  feed 

Northern  Shrike,  on  f  mit>  seeds>  and  insects,  a  bird  who 
Lanius  boreaiis.  in  his  position  and  choice  of  food  is 
Plate  LVIII.  truly  hawklike.  Shrikes  are  solitary, 
never  assembling  in  flocks  or  associating  with  other  birds. 
Their  days  are  days  of  waiting,  varied  by  a  pounce  upon 
some  unfortunate  field  mouse  or  dash  into  a  flock  of  un- 
suspecting Sparrows.  But,  while  they  resemble  the  Hawks 
in  these  respects,  their  manner  of  capturing  their  prey  dif- 
fers from  that  of  their  larger  prototypes.  The  Shrike 
has  a  Hawk's  bill  but  a  Sparrow's  foot,  and,  lacking  the 
powerful  talons  which  make  so  deadly  a  weapon,  he  cap- 
tures his  prey  with  his  strong  mandibles.  Possibly  it  may 
be  due  to  his  comparatively  weak  feet  that  he  pursues  the 
singular  custom  of  impaling  his  prey  on  some  thorn  or 
hanging  it  from  a  crotch  where  he  can  better  dissect  it. 

The  Shrike,  or  Butcher-bird,  as  he  is  also  called,  be- 
longs to  a  large  family,  but,  with  the  exception  of  his 
smaller  cousin  the  Loggerhead,  he  is  the  only  one  of  the 
two  hundred  known  species  found  in  America.  He  nests 


PLATE  LVIII. 

NORTHERN  SHRIKE. 

Length,  10'30  inches.  Adult,  upper  parts  gray  ;  tail  black  and  white  ;  under 
parts  white,  with  blackish  bars  ;  lores  grayish  ;  ear-coverts  black.  Young, 
similar,  but  plumage  washed  with  brownish. 

219 


220  VIREOS.   . 

within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in  October  journeys  south- 
ward, rarely  as  far  as  Virginia,  and  remains  in  the  United 
States  until  April  or  May. 

The  Loggerhead  Shrike  is  common  in  the  Southern 
States  and  Mississippi  Valley,  whence  it  has  apparently 
extended  eastward  through  central  New  York  to  Ver- 
mont and  Maine.  It  nests  in  these  States,  but  southward 
to  Maryland  is  known  only  as  a  rare  migrant — a  unique 
case  in  distribution.  It  differs  from  the  Northern  Shrike 
in  being  an  inch  and  a  quarter  smaller,  in  the  absence  of  the 
wavy  bars  on  the  breast,  which  is  pure  white,  and  in  hav- 
ing jet-black  lores  and  a  narrow  black  line  across  the  fore- 
head at  the  base  of  the  bill.  Its  song  is  creaky  and  un- 
musical, but  the  song  of  the  Northern  Shrike,  as  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Brewster,  is  "  really  pleasing,"  and  "  not 
unlike  that  of  the  Thrasher,  but  more  disconnected  and 
less  loud  and  varied." 


VIREOS.    (FAMILY  VIREONIDJE.) 

Vireos  are  gleaners,  and  are  to  be  distinguished  from 
other  tree-inhabiting,  greenish  birds  of  the  same  size  by 
their  habit  of  carefully  exploring  the  under  surface  of 
leaves  and  various  nooks  and  corners  in  the  bark  and 
foliage,  while  the  more  active  Warblers  are  flitting  about 
the  terminal  twigs  and  the  Flycatchers  are  swinging  out 
in  aerial  loops  at  passing  insects. 

They  are  highly  musical  little  birds,  having  songs  and 
call -notes  which  may  be  quickly  recognized  once  they 
are  known.  The  nests  and  eggs  of  our  four  summer- 
resident  species  are  so  much  alike  that  they  are  to  be 
known  only  when  accompanied  by  their  owners.  The 
White-eyed  Vireo  inhabits  thickets  and,  as  a  rule,  builds 
nearer  the  ground  than  the  arboreal  Red -eyed,  Yellow- 
throated,  and  Warbling  Vireos.  The  nests  are  small, 


EED-EYED  VIREO.  221 

pouchlike  affairs  of  strips  of  pliable  bark,  bits  of  dead 
wood,  plant-fibers,  tendrils,  fine  grasses,  etc.,  firmly  inter- 
woven and  suspended  from  the  arms  of  a  forked  twig. 
The  eggs  are  white,  with  a  few  black  or  brownish  black 
spots,  chiefly  about  the  larger  end. 

The  Yireos  are  an  exclusively  American  family,  and 

number  some   fifty  species,   of  which   seven  reach  the 

Bed-eyed  Vireo,       northeastern  States.     Of  these,  by  far 

Vireo  olivaceus.       the    most    common    is   the    Red-eyed 

Plate  Lix.  Yireo.  There  are  few  favorable  locali- 
ties in  eastern  North  America  where,  in  the  summer, 
one  may  not  hear  the  cheerful  song  of  this  bird.  Still, 
it  is  so  well  protected  by  the  foliage,  with  which  its 
plumage  agrees  in  color,  that  to  those  whose  ear  is  not 
attuned  to  the  music  of  birds  it  is  unknown.  But  listen 
near  some  grove  of  elms  or  marples,  and  you  will  not  fail 
to  hear  its  song — a  somewhat  broken,  rambling  recitative, 
which  no  one  has  described  so  well  as  Wilson  Flagg,  who 
calls  this  bird  the  Preacher,  and  interprets  its  notes  as 
"  You  see  it — you  know  it — do  you  hear  me  ? — do  you  be- 
lieve it  ? "  The  Red-eye  evidently  has  an  inquiring  mind, 
for  he  never  tires  of  asking  these  questions.  He  not 
only  sings  all  day,  but  seems  unaffected  by  the  heat  of 
summer,  and  at  midday  is  often  the  only  bird  to  be  heard. 
One  would  imagine  that  few  birds  had  a  more  even  tem- 
perament than  this  calm-voiced  singer,  but  when  annoyed 
he  utters  a  complaining  whang — a  sound  which  is  a  good 
indication  that  something  is  wrong  in  the  bird  world. 

The  Red-eye  winters  in  the  tropics,  and  reaches  us  in 
the  spring  about  May  1,  remaining  until  October  15. 

A  near  relative  of  the  Red-eye's  is  the  Warbling 
Yireo — a  somewhat  smaller  bird,  with  a  brown,  in  place 
of  red  eye,  and  without  the  black  margin  above  the  white 
eye-line  which  can  be  so  easily  seen  in  the  Red-eye.  The 
Warbling  Yireo  is  the  less  common  of  the  two,  and  is 


222  VIREOS. 

more  local,  showing  a  marked  fondness  for  rows  of  elms 

— a  taste  which  makes  it  a  dweller  in  towns  and  villages. 

Its  song  bears  no  resemblance  to  that 

Warbling  Vireo,       of   ^    Red.eye     beirig   a    continuous, 

Vireo  gilvus.  •'    ' 

flowuig  warble,  with  an  alto  under- 
tone, suggestive  of  the  song  of  the  Purple  Finch. 

The  Warbling  Vireo  arrives  from  its  winter  home  in 
the  tropics  about  May  5,  and  remains  until  late  in  Sep- 
tember. 

Although  the  Yellow-throated  Yireo  is  least  like  the 
Red-eye  in  color,  it  resembles  it  the  most  closely  in  choice 

Yellow-throated  °^  naun*s  an(^  m  song-     Still,  the  Yellow- 

vireo,  throat's  song  is  sung  more  deliberately 
Vireo  favif row.  and  with  longer  pauses  between  the 
parts,  while  in  tone  it  is  deeper  and 
richer.  To  my  mind  he  says  :  "  See  me ;  I'm  here ;  where 
are  you  ? "  repeating  the  question  in  varying  forms. 
Rarely  he  utters  a  beautiful,  mellow  trill  which  suggests 
the  song  of  the  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet,  and  he  has  also 
a  cackwq,  scolding  note  like  that  of  the  White-eye. 
The  Yellow-throat's  nest  is  often  a*  more  elaborate  struc- 
ture than  those  of  our  other  Yireos,  being  thickly  cov- 
ered with  lichens,  which  add  greatly  to  its  beauty. 

Like  the  two  preceding  species,  the  Yellow-throat 
winters  in  the  tropics,  and  reaches  the  latitude  of  New 
York  city  about  May  1.  It  does  not,  however,  remain 
as  long  as  its  relatives,  leaving  us  about  September  15. 

The  White-eyed  Yireo  is  the  genius  of  his  family. 

What  the   Chat  is  among  Warblers  the  White-eye  is 

among   Yireos — a    peculiar,    eccentric 

White-eyed  Vireo,     bird  of  gt  character,  who  regards 

Vireo  noveboracem^s.  ° 

mankind  with  disapproval,  and  will 
have  none  of  us.  Excellent  reasons  these  why  we 
should  court  his  acquaintance. 

Unlike  our  other  Yireos,  the  White-eye  lives  in  the 


PLATE  LIX. 

YELLOW-THROATED  VIREO. 

Length,  5'95  inches.    Crown  and  back  greenish  yellow  ;  rump  gray  ;  breast 
bright  yellow  ;  belly  white  ;  wing-bars  white. 

RED-EYED  VIREO. 

Length,  6'25  inches.    Crown  gray,  bordered  by  black  and  white  ;  back,  wings, 
and  tail  olive-green  ;  under  parts,  white. 


224:  WARBLERS. 

lower  growth ;  thickets  of  cat-brier  are  his  favorite 
haunts.  He  is  therefore  nearer  our  level,  and  seems  to 
address  us  more  directly  than  do  the  birds  that  call  from 
the  tree  tops.  If  you  linger  near  his  home  he  will  inquire 
your  business  with  a  vigorous  "  I  say,  who  are  you,  eh  ? " 
and  if  you  do  not  take  this  hint  to  move  on  he  will 
doubtless  follow  it  with  a  scolding  whose  intent  is  unmis- 
takable. He  has  a  variety  of  exclamatory  calls,  and 
sometimes  may  be  heard  softly  singing  a  song  composed 
largely  of  imitations  of  the  notes  of  other  birds. 

The  White-eye  can  easily  be  known  from  the  Red-eye 
and  Warbling  Yireos  by  the  narrow  white  bands  across 
the  tips  of  its  wing-coverts.  In  this  respect  it  resembles 
the  Yellow-throat,  from  which  it  is  to  be  distinguished 
by  its  smaller  size  (length  5*25  inches),  white  iris,  and 
white  breast,  only  the  sides  of  the  breast  being  tinged 
with  yellow.  It  winters  from  Florida  southward,  and 
reaches  us  in  the  spring  about  May  1,  to  remain  until 
October. 


WARBLERS.    (FAMILY  MNIOTILTID^.) 

Warblers  may  be  described  as  among  our  most  abun- 
dant, most  beautiful,  and  least-known  birds.  Of  the 
thirty-five  species  regularly  found  in  the  northeastern 
States,  only  three  or  four  are  familiar  to  the  casual  ob- 
server. The  presence  of  the  others  is  unsuspected,  and 
when  some  chance  brings  one  of  these  exquisite  little 
creatures  into  our  lives,  the  event  is  attended  by  all  the 
excitement  of  an  actual  discovery.  We  never  forget  our 
first  Warbler. 

It  is  because  we  do  not  see  Warblers  unless  we  look 
for  them  that  they  are  strangers  to  so  many  persons  who 
go  to  the  woods.  They  are,  with  some  exceptions,  small 
birds  of  limited  vocal  powers.  They  live  in  the  tree  tops, 


rf 


PLATE  LX. 

BLACK  AND  WHITE   WARBLER. 

Length,  5 '25  inches.  Adult  male,  upper  parts,  breast,  and  sides  black  and 
white  ;  belly  white.  Adult  female,  similar,  but  with  less  black  on  under 
parts. 

225 

16 


226  BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER. 

and  their  lisping  notes  blend  with  other  woodland  voices 
without  attracting  our  attention. 

May  and  September  are  the  months  for  Warblers. 
Some  species  arrive  in  April,  but  they  are  most  numer- 
ous between  May  5  and  15,  when  the  woods  are 
thronged  with  their  flitting  forms.  Less  than  half  of  our 
thirty-five  species  remain  to  breed ;  the  others  go  to  their 
summer  homes  in  the  coniferous  forests  of  the  North. 
These  northern  birds  return  in  the  latter  part  of  August 
and  abound  in  September.  Many  of  the  Warblers  seen 
at  this  season  are  immature  birds  wearing  plumages  so 
different  from  those  of  the  adult  birds  seen  in  the  spring, 
that  their  identity  is  not  suspected,  and,  in  effect,  they 
are  new  birds  to  us. 

To  the  field  ornithologist  Warblers  are  therefore  the 
most  difficult  as  well  as  the  most  fascinating  birds  to 
study.  Long  after  the  Sparrows,  Flycatchers,  and  Yireos 
have  been  mastered,  there  will  be  unsolved  problems 
among  the  Warblers.  Some  rare  species  will  be  left  to 
look  for — it  may  be  a  member  of  the  band  flitting  about 
actively  in  the  branches  above  us — and  in  the  hope  of 
finding  it  we  eagerly  examine  bird  after  bird  until  our 
enthusiasm  yields  to  an  aching  neck. 

Acquaintance  with  more  familiar  birds  will  doubtless 
arouse  the  enthusiasm  necessary  to  a  successful  pursuit  of 

•m  i  ^  TTrv,-*  Warblers,  but  in  the  meanwhile  I  will 
Black  and  White  g  ' 

Warbler    mention  only  those  species  that  can  be 
Mniotiita  varia.       most  easily  observed.     Among  them  is 

Plate  LX.  the   B]ack   and  mite    Warbler,  whose 

habit  of  creeping  or  climbing  over  trunk  and  limb  aids 
in  his  identification.  He  is  a  summer  resident,  and  about 
April  20  we  may  expect  to  hear  the  thin,  wiry  see-see- 
see-see  notes  which  form  his  song.  A  month  later  we 
may  find  his  nest,  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  base  of 
a  stump  or  stone  and  containing  four  or  five  white 


H 


PLATE  LXI. 

MYRTLE  WARBLER. 

Length,  5'65  inches.  Winter  plumage,  crown-patch,  rump,  and  sides  of 
breast  yellow  ;  back  brown  and  black  ;  under  parts  black  and  white.  Summer 
plumage,  similar,  but  upper  parts  gray  and  black  ;  more  black  on  under 
parts. 

BLACK-THROATED  GREEN  WARBLER. 

Length,  5'10  inches.  Upper  parts  yellowish  green  ;  face  brighter ;  breast 
black  ;  belly  white. 

227 


228  WARBLERS. 

eggs  speckled  with  reddish  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger 
end. 

The  Yellow  Warbler  is  also  a  summer  resident,  arriv- 
ing in  the  spring  about  April  30  and  remaining,  with 
the  Black-and-white  Warbler,  until  late 
i»  Somber.  It  has  the  general  ap- 
pearance  of  being  an  entirely  yellow 
bird,  and  is  sometimes  called  u  Wild  Canary,"  but  it  has 
a  much  more  slender  bill  than  the  Canary,  and  its  breast 
is  spotted  with  reddish  brown.  Most  Warblers  are  wood- 
inhabiting  birds,  but  the  Yellow  Warbler,  unlike  its  rela- 
tives, prefers  lawns,  parks,  and  orchards  to  woodlands. 
Its  nest,  of  fine  grasses,  fibers,  and  a  large  amount  of  cot- 
tony plant-down,  is  placed  in  shrubbery  or  shade  trees. 
Its  eggs  are  bluish  white,  thickly  marked  with  cinnamon 
and  olive-brown. 

The  Black-throated  Green  Warbler  nests  in  pine  for- 
ests from  southern  New  England  northward,  arriving 

from  the  South  about  May  1  and  re- 
Black-throated  \ 

Green  Warbler    mainmg    until    October.     Its    nest    is 

Dendroica virens.      usually  placed  in  pine  trees;  its  eggs 
Plate  LXI.          are  white?  spotted  and  speckled  with 
dark  brown. 

The  songs  of  many  Warblers  are  possessed  of  so  little 
character  that  the  best  description  conveys  no  idea  of 
them,  but  the  quaint  zee-zee,  zee-ee,  zee  of  the  Black- 
throated  Green,  which  Mr.  Burroughs  writes v  — 5 

will  be  readily  recognized. 

The  Myrtle  or  Yellow-rumped  Warbler  nests  from 

northern  New  England  northward,  and  in  winter  is  the 

Myrtle  Warbler       on^J  Warbler  to  remain  in  the  North- 

Dendroica  coronata.     ern  States,  being  often   found   as  far 

Plate  LXI.          north    as    New   York    city,   when   its 

favorite  food  of  bayberries  can  be  procured.      At  this 

season  there  is  little  or  no  black  on  the  breast  and  the 


PLATE  LXII. 

REDSTART. 

Length,  5'40  inches.  Adult  male,  band  in  wings ;  base  of  tail  and  sides  of 
breast  deep  salmon  ;  belly  white  ;  rest  of  plumage  black.  Adult  female  and 
young.,  similar,  but  salmon  replaced  by  yellow  ;  upper  parts  grayish  brown  ; 
under  parts  white  ;  breast  yellowish. 

229 


230  REDSTART. 

back  is  grayish  brown,  but  this  Warbler  may  always  be 
known  by  its  four  patches  of  yellow  and  its  characteristic 
call-note  of  tchip. 

The  Redstart  belongs  to  the  group  of  fly-catching 

Warblers,  and,  as  an  indication  of  its  manner  of  feeding, 

Redstart  n^8  ^U  *8  mllcn  broader  and  flatter  than 

SetopJiaga  rutitiiia.    is  usual  in  this  family.     The  Redstart  is 

Plate  Lxii.  not  go  patient  and  methodic  a  flycatcher 
as  the  birds  to  whom  this  name  rightly  belongs.  They 
sit  quietly  until  some  insect  comes  within  reach,  and  then 
with  unerring  aim  launch  out  at  it,  returning  to  their 
perch  to  devour  it  at  leisure.  But  the  Redstart  darts 
here  and  there,  falls  and  rises  and  spins  about,  catching 
an  insect  at  every  turn  and  at  the  same  time  displaying 
his  bright  colors  to  such  advantage  that  he  seems  the 
most  beautiful  as  he  is  the  most  animated  bird  of  the 
woods.  As  he  pirouettes  from  limb  to  limb,  with  drooped 
wings  and  spread  tail,  he  sings  ser-wee  swee,  swee-ee,  a 
simple  but  merry  little  jingle. 

The  Redstart's  bright  colors,  like  some  mark  of 
special  distinction,  are  not  acquired  at  once.  The  young 
male  must  pass  through  a  period  of  probation  before  he 
is  worthy  to  wear  the  orange-red  and  black.  In  the 
meantime  he  appears  first  in  the  costume  of  the  female, 
and  by  successive  changes  reaches  the  full  dignity  of 
Redstart  estate  at  the  age  of  three  years.  He  nests, 
however,  the  first  year,  when  his  plumage  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  his  mate.  The  nest,  of  fine  strips  of 
bark,  plant-down,  and  other  materials,  is  built  in  the 
crotch  of  a  sapling  ten  to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 
The  eggs  are  grayish  white  or  bluish  white,  spotted  and 
blotched,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  cinnamon  and 
olive-brown. .  They  are  laid  about  May  28 — four  weeks 
after  the  bird's  arrival  from  the  South. 

All  the  Warblers  thus  far  mentioned  are  tree-inhabit- 


PLATE  LXIII. 

OVEN-BIRD. 

Length,  6' 15  inches.    Crown  reddish  brown,  bordered  by  black  ;  back,  wings, 
and  tail  olive-green  ;  under  parts  black  and  white. 

231 


232  OVEN-BIRD. 

ing  birds,  but  the  species  now  to  be  spoken  of  pass  most 
of  their  time  in  the  undergrowth  or  on  the  ground.  The 

Oven-bird  Oven-bird  chooses  the  latter  locality. 

Seiurus  aurocap^llus.  He  has  been  well  compared  by  Mr. 

Plate  LXIIL  Burroughs  to  a  little  Partridge,  and  if 
you  have  enough  perseverance  to  find  the  author  of  the 
sharp  cheep  with  which  this  somewhat  suspicious  bird 
will  greet  you,  you  will  see  a  modestly  attired  little 
walker  daintily  picking  his  way  over  the  leaves  and  fallen 
branches,  with  crest  slightly  erect,  and  head  nodding  at 
each  step. 

Probably,  however,  your  first  acquaintance  with  the 
Oven-bird  will  be  made  through  the  medium  of  his  song. 
There  are  few  bits  of  woodland  where  in  May  and  June 
you  can  not  hear  numbers  of  these  birds  singing.  It  is  a 
loud,  ringing,  crescendo  chant,  to  which  Mr.  Burroughs's 
description  of  "teacher,  teacher ,  TEACHER,  TEACHER, 
TEACHER  "  is  so  applicable  that  no  one  would  think  of 
describing  it  in  any  other  way.  The  bird  seems  to  exert 
himself  to  the  utmost,  and  no  one  hearing  this  far  from 
musical  performance  would  imagine  that  he  could  im- 
prove upon  it.  But  if  some  evening  during  the  height 
of  the  mating  season  you  will  visit  the  Oven-bird's 
haunts,  you  may  hear  a  song  whose  wildness  is  startling. 
It  is  the  flight-song  of  the  Oven-bird,  transforming  the 
humble  chanter  into  an  inspired  musician.  Soaring  high 
above  the  trees,  he  gives  utterance  to  a  rapid,  ecstatic 
warbling  so  unlike  his  ordinary  song  that  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  one  bird  is  the  author  of  them  both. 

As  an  architect  the  Oven-bird  is  also  distinguished. 
His  unique  nest  is  built  on  the  ground  of  coarse  grasses, 
weed  stalks,  leaves,  and  rootlets,  and  is  roofed  over,  the 
entrance  being  at  one  side.  It  thus  resembles  an  old- 
fashioned  Dutch  oven,  and  its  shape  is  the  origin  of  its 
builder's  name.  The  Oven-bird  arrives  from  the  South 


PLATE  LXIV. 


MARYLAND  YELLOW-THROAT. 


Length,  5'30  inches.  Adult  male,  face  black,  bordered  by  ashy  ;  back  olive- 
green  ;  breast  yellow  ;  belly  paler.  Adult  female,  similar,  but  no  black  on 
face  ;  under  parts  paler. 


234  MARYLAND   YELLOW-THROAT. 

about  May  1,  and  its  eggs  are  laid  about  the  20th  of  the 
month.  They  are  white,  speckled  or  spotted  with  cinna- 
mon and  reddish  brown. 

The  Maryland  Yellow-throat  is  an  abundant  inhabit- 
ant of  thickets  and  bushy  undergrowths,  readily  iden- 
M  land  tilled  by  his  black  mask  and  yellow 

Yellow-throat,  breast,  nervous  activity,  and  character- 
GeotUypis  trichas.  istic  notes.  Some  birds  must  be  ap- 
proached with  caution,  but  nothing  save 
an  actual  attack  upon  his  home  will  cause  the  Yellow- 
throat  to  leave  its  shelter.  Hopping  from  limb  to  limb, 
he  advances  to  the  border  of  the  thicket,  then  retreats  to 
its  depths,  all  the  time  uttering  an  impatient  chack,  chit, 
or  pit,  and,  if  forced  to  fly,  he  goes  only  to  the  next  clump 
of  bushes. 

The  Yellow-throat's  somewhat  explosive  song  is  so 
easily  set  to  words  and  so  variable  that  there  are  many 
versions  of  it.  It  is  described  as  whitititee,  whitititee, 
whitititee  ;  rapity,  rapity,  rapity,  rap,  or  witch-e-wee-o, 
witch-e-wee-o,  witch-e-wee-o.  Mr.  Burroughs  says  he  has 
heard  birds  whose  notes  sounded  like  the  words  "  Which 
way,  sir  ? "  and  I  have  heard  some  who  seemed  to  say 
"  Wait  a  minute." 

To  this  the  Yellow-throat  sometimes  adds  a  flight 
song,  which  is  a  miniature  of  the  Oven-bird's  aerial  sere- 
nade. It  is  generally  added  to  his  usual  song,  and  is 
most  often  heard  late  in  the  season  at  evening,  when 
the  bird  may  be  seen  springing  into  the  air  above  his 
bushy  retreat. 

The  Yellow-throat  arrives  from  the  South  about  May 
1,  and  remains  until  the  middle  of  October.  Late  in 
May  a  bulky  nest  of  grasses,  strips  of  bark,  and  dead 
leaves,  lined  with  finer  materials,  is  built  on  or  near  the 
ground.  The  three  to  five  eggs  are  white,  rather  thinly 
speckled  with  reddish  brown.  Often  an  egg  of  the  Cow- 


PLATE  LXV. 


YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT. 
Length,  7'45  inches.    Upper  parts  olive-green  ;  breast  yellow  ;  belly  white  ; 
lores  black,  bordered  by  white. 

235 


236  YELLOW-BREASTED  CHAT. 

bird  will  be  found  in  the  nest,  Yellow-throats  being  one 
of  the  birds  most  frequently  chosen  by  the  Cowbird  as 
foster-parents. 

The  Chat  is  the  largest  of  the  Warblers,  and  so  unlike 
them,  or  any  other  birds,  in  disposition  that  if  classifica- 
YeUow-breastedChat,  ^on  were  based  on  character,  the  Chat 

Meria  virens.        would  surely  be  placed  in  a  family  by 

Plate  LXV.  itge}f  ^he  Chat's  peculiarities  are 
numerous,  but  are  most  evident  in  his  song.  Many 
times  I  have  sat,  note-book  and  pencil  in  hand,  trying  to 
express  in  words  the  song  of  a  Chat  singing  in  a  neigh- 
boring thicket,  but  I  have  never  succeeded  in  putting  on 
paper  anything  which  would  convey  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  bird's  remarkable  vocal  performances.  Of  others 
who  have  attempted  the  same  task,  I  think  Mr.  Bur- 
roughs comes  nearest  to  interpreting  the  bird's  strange 
medley.  He  says :  "  Now  he  barks  like  a  puppy,  then 
quacks  like  a  Duck,  then  rattles  like  a  Kingfisher,  then 
squalls  like  a  fox,  then  caws  like  a  Crow,  then  mews  like 
a  cat.  .  .  .  C-r-r-r-r-r — whrr — that's  it — chee — quack, 
cluck,,  yit-yit-yit — now  hit  it — tr-r-r-r — when — caw — caw 
— cut.  cut — tea-hoy — who,  who — mew,  mew."  You  may 
be  pardoned  for  doubting  that  a  bird  can  produce  so 
strange  a  series  of  noises,  but  if  you  will  go  to  the  Chat's 
haunts  in  thickety  openings  in  the  woods,  or  other  bushy 
places,  and  let  him  speak  for  himself,  you  will  admit  that 
our  alphabet  can  not  do  him  justice.  To  hear  the  Chat  is 
one  thing,  to  see  him  quite  another.  But  he  will  repay 
study,  and  if  you  will  conceal  yourself  near  his  home  you 
may  see  him  deliver  part  of  his  repertoire  while  on  the 
wing,  with  legs  dangling,  wings  and  tail  napping,  and  his 
whole  appearance  suggesting  that  of  a  bird  who  has  had 
an  unfortunate  encounter  with  a  charge  of  shot. 

But  if  the  Chat's  song  is  surprising  when  heard  dur- 
ing the  day,  imagine  the  effect  it  creates  at  night  when 


CATBIRD.  237 

he  has  the  stage  to  himself,  for  he  is  one  of  our  few  birds 
who  sing  regularly  and  freely  during  the  night,  moonlit 
nights  being  most  often  selected. 

The  Chat  is  a  rather  southern  bird  in  its  distribution, 
being  found  north  of  Connecticut  only  locally  and  rarely. 
It  winters  in  the  tropics,  coming  to  us  about  May  1  and 
departing  early  in  September.  Its  well-made  nest  of 
grasses,  leaves,  and  strips  of  bark  is  generally  placed  in 
the  crotch  of  a  sapling  within  three  feet  of  the  ground. 
Its  three  to  five  eggs  are  white,  rather  evenly  speckled 
and  spotted  with  reddish  brown. 

THRASHERS,  WRENS,  ETC.    (FAMILY  TROGLODYTID.E.) 

The  Eastern  representatives  of  this  family  are  appar- 
ently too  unlike  to  be  classed  in  the  same  group,  but  when 
all  the  two  hundred  members  of  the  family  are  studied,  it 
is  evident  that  the  extremes  are  connected  by  intermedi- 
ate species  possessing  in  a  degree  the  characters  of  both 
Wrens  and  Thrashers. 

The  Catbird  belongs  to  the  subfamily  Mtmince,  which 
contains  also  the  Mockingbirds  and  Thrashers,  number- 
Catbird  m£  some  fifty  species,  all  being  re- 
Gaieoscoptes  stricted  to  North  America. 

carolinensis.  The     Qatbird    ig    Qne    Qf     tbe     mogt 

familiar  feathered  inhabitants  of  tho  denser  shrubbery 
about  our  lawns  and  gardens.  The  sexes  are  alike  in 
color,  both  being  slaty  gray,  with  a  black  cap  and  tail, 
and  brick-red  under  tail-coverts.  They  arrive  from  the 
South  about  April  29,  and  remain  until  October.  Their 
nest  is  usually  placed  in  thickets,  shrubbery,  or  heavily 
foliaged  trees,  and  the  deep  greenish  blue  eggs  are  laid 
the  fourth  week  in  May. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  Catbird's  name  should  have 
originated  in  his  call-note  rather  than  in  his  song.  The 


238  MOCKINGBIRD. 

former  is  a  petulant,  whining,  nasal  tchay,  to  me  one  of 
the  most  disagreeable  sounds  in  Nature,  and  so  unlike 
the  bird's  song  that  he  seems  possessed  of  a  dual  person- 
ality. The  Catbird's  song,  from  a  musical  standpoint,  is 
excelled  by  that  of  few  of  our  birds.  His  voice  is  full 
and  rich,  his  execution  and  phrasing  are  faultless ;  but 
the  effect  of  his  song,  sweet  and  varied  as  it  is,  is  marred 
by  the  singer's  too  evident  consciousness. 

The  Catbird's  relative,  the  Mockingbird,  is  an  abun- 
dant inhabitant  of  the  southern  United  States  from  Yir- 

Mockingbird,  gm*a  to  California,  and  ranges  south- 
Mimus poiygiottos.  ward  into  Mexico.  In  the  Eastern 

Plate  LXVI.  States  it  is  not  common  north  of  south- 
ern Illinois  and  Virginia,  but  in  summer  it  is  found  in 
small  numbers  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts,  where  a  few 
pairs  breed  each  season.  It  is  exceedingly  domestic  in 
its  habits,  and  in  the  South  there  are  few  suitable  gar- 
dens, either  in  the  town  or  country,  which  are  not  inhab- 
ited by  a  pair  of  Mockingbirds. 

The  power  of  mimicry  for  which  this  bird  is  cele- 
brated has,  I  think,  been  unduly  exaggerated,  and  the 
fact  that  its  usual  song  contains  several  notes  resembling 
those  of  other  species  doubtless  in  part  accounts  for  its 
much  overrated  ability  as  a  mimic.  It  is  unnecessary, 
however,  for  the  Mockingbird  to  borrow  the  notes  of  other 
birds,  for  his  own  song  places  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
our  songsters.  It  is  delivered  with  a  spirit  and  animation 
which  add  greatly  to  its  attractiveness.  The  Mocking- 
bird does  not  sing  between  mouthfuls,  as  do  the  Yireos, 
or  quietly  from  a  perch,  like  the  Towhee  or  Thrasher ; 
he  frequently  changes  his  position,  hopping  from  place 
to  place,  making  short  flights,  bounding  into  the  air,  and 
displaying  the  white  markings  of  his  wings  and  tail,  as 
though  it  were  impossible  for  him  to  give  expression  to 
his  emotion  through  the  medium  of  voice  alone.  During 


PLATE  LXVI. 

MOCKINGBIRD. 

Length,  10'50  inches.    Upper  parts  ashy  gray  ;  wings  and  tail  brownish  black 
and  white  ;  under  parts  white. 


240  BROWN  THRASHER. 

moonlight  nights  of  the  nesting  season,  Mockingbirds 
sing  all  night.  They  are  then  less  active,  and,  mounting 
to  some  favorite  perch,  often  a  chimney  top,  flood  the 
still  air  with  entrancing  melody. 

Like  the  Catbird  and  Mocker,  the  Brown  Thrasher  or 

Brown  "Thrush"   inhabits   thickets   and   undergrowth. 

Brown  Thrasher,      He  is>  however,  a  much  less  domestic 

Harporhynchus  rufus.  bird,  and  prefers  brushy  pasture  lots  and 

Plate  LX  vii.  way  side  hedges  to  lawns  or  gardens. 
He  arrives  from  the  South  the  latter  part  of  April,  and 
often  remains  until  late  in  October.  The  nest  is  built 
about  May  15,  and  is  placed  on  the  ground  or  several  feet 
above  it.  The  eggs  are  bluish  or  grayish  white,  thickly, 
evenly,  and  minutely  speckled  with  cinnamon  or  reddish 
brown. 

As  a  songster  I  should  rank  the  Thrasher  between 
the  Mocker  and  the  Catbird.  His  song  is  less  varied  and 
animated  than  the  Mocker's,  and  while  his  technique  may 
not  excel  that  of  the  Catbird,  his  song,  to  my  mind,  is 
much  more  effective  than  the  performance  of  that  accom- 
plished musician.  Mounting  to  the  topmost  limb  of  a 
tree,  he  sings  uninterruptedly  for  several  minutes.  The 
notes  can  be  heard  for  at  least  a  third  of  a  mile,  ringing 
out  clear  and  well  defined  above  the  medley  of  voices 
that  form  the  chorus  of  a  May  morning. 

The  intense  vitality  which  characterizes  the  life  of 
birds  finds  its  highest  expression  in  the  Wrens.  Perpet- 

House  Wren  ua^  m°tion  alone  describes  the  activity 
Troglodytes  aedon.  of  these  nervous,  excitable  little  crea- 
Piate  LXVIII.  tureg>  Repose  seems  out  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  as  well  expect  to  catch  a  weasel  asleep  as  to  find  a 
Wren  at  rest. 

In  his  movements,  song,  and  nesting  habits  our  House 
Wren  exhibits  the  characteristic  traits  of  his  family.  He 
is  ever  hopping,  flitting,  bobbing,  or  bowing,  pausing 


On  the 


PLATE  LXVII. 

BROWN  THRASHER. 

Length,  11 '40  inches.    Upper  parts  bright  reddish  brown  ;  under  parts  white 
and  black  ;  eyes  yellow. 


241 


17 


242  HOUSE  WREN. 

only  long  enough  to  give  voice  to  his  feelings  in  fidgetty, 
scolding  notes,  or  an  effervescing,  musical  trill,  with  the 
force  of  which  his  small  body  trembles.  It  is  a  wonder- 
ful outburst  of  song,  and  the  diminutive  singer's  enthu- 
siasm and  endurance  are  even  more  remarkable.  The 
song  occupies  about  three  seconds,  and  I  have  heard  a 
Wren,  in  response  to  a  rival,  sing  at  the  rate  of  ten  songs 
a  minute  for  two  hours  at  a  time. 

The  House  Wren  nests  in  almost  any  kind  of  suitable 
hole  or  cavity,  and  will  frequently  take  possession  of  a 
bird  box,  if  the  House  Sparrows  have  not  already  set  up 
a  claim  to  the  same  property.  To  prevent  intrusion  from 
the  Sparrows,  the  entrance  to  the  house  should  be  made 
not  larger  than  a  quarter  of  a  dollar.  Whatever  be 
the  site  the  Wrens  select,  their  surplus  energy  is  em- 
ployed in  completely  filling  it  with  twigs,  half  a  bushelf  ul 
being  sometimes  brought  with  endless  pains.  The  nest 
proper  is  composed  of  dried  grasses,  and  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  this  mass.  Even  in  egg-laying  the  exhaustless 
vitality  of  Wrens  is  shown,  as  many  as  six  or  eight  eggs 
being  deposited.  In  color  they  are  uniformly  and  mi- 
nutely speckled  with  pinkish  brown. 

The  House  Wren  arrives  from  the  South  late  in  April 

and  remains  until  October.     Shortly  before  its  departure 

in   the   fall  a  Wren    comes   from   the 

Winter  Wren         -^^  that  resembleg  the  House  Wren 

Troglodytes  h^emal^s. 

in  appearance,  but  is  smaller  and  has 
the  under  parts  pale  brown,  the  breast  and  belly  being 
finely  barred  with  a  darker  shade  of  the  same  color. 
This  is  the  Winter  Wren,  a  bird  that  nests  from  north- 
ern New  England  northward  and  southward  along  the 
crests  of  the  Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina.  It  remains 
with  us  in  small  numbers  throughout  the  winter,  return- 
ing to  its  summer  home  in  April.  Mr.  Burroughs  writes 
of  the  Winter  Wren's  song  as  a  "  wild,  sweet,  rhythmical 


PLATE  LXVIII. 

HOUSE  WREN. 

Length,  5'00  inches.    Upper  parts  brown,  marked  with  black  and  grayish ; 
under  parts  grayish  white. 

243 


24:4  WRENS. 

cadence  that  holds  you  entranced,"  but  while  with  us  the 
bird's  only  note  is  an  impatient  chimp,  chimp,  suggest- 
ing the  Song  Sparrow's  call-note. 

The  Carolina  Wren  is  a  more  southern  bird  than  the 
House  Wren.     It  is  of  only  local  distribution  north  of 
Carolina  Wren,       southern   New   Jersey,    and   is    rarely 
Thryothorus  found   north  of   the  vicinity  of  New 

ludomdanus.  york  G^  w^ere  jt  appears  to  be  in- 
creasing in  numbers  and  is  found  throughout  the  year. 
This  Wren  is  half  an  inch  longer  and  decidedly  heavier 
than  the  House  Wren  ;  its  upper  parts  are  bright  cinna- 
mon, its  under  parts  washed  with  the  same  color,  and 
a  conspicuous  white  line  passes  from  the  bill  over  the 
eye. 

The  Carolina  Wren  is  an  exceedingly  musical  bird, 
and  its  loud  whistled  calls  are  among  the  most  character- 
istic bird  notes  in  the  South.  They  are  numerous  and 
varied,  the  most  common  resembling  the  syllables  whee- 
udel,  w  tee-udel,  whee-udel,  and  tea-kettle^  tea-kettle,  tea- 
kettle. 

The   haunts  of  most  marsh-inhabiting  birds   are  as 
sharply  defined  as  the  limits  of  their  ranges.     The  Long- 
billed  Marsh  Wren   is  not  known  in 
Long-billed 

Marsh  Wren,  *ne  East  north  of  Massachusetts,  but  I 
dstothorus  paiustris.  would  as  soon  expect  to  find  one  of 

Plate  LXIX.  these  birds  in  Greenland  as  out  of  a 
marsh.  They  arrive  from  the  South  early  in  May  and 
remain  until  October,  living  in  marshes  where  cat-tails 
grow,  to  which  they  may  attach  their  bulky,  globular 
nests  of  reeds  and  grasses.  With  the  superabundant 
vigor  of  Wrens  they  build  more  nests  than  they  can 
possibly  occupy,  and  many  will  be  examined  before  the 
five  to  six  dark  brown  eggs  are  found. 

The  Marsh  Wren  is  quite  as  active  and  irrepressible 
as  the  other  members  of  his  family.  His  call  is  the  cus- 


PLATE  LXIX. 

LONG-BILLED  MARSH  WREN. 

Length,  5'20  inches.    Upper  parts  brown,  black,  and  white,  a  white  line  over 
eye  ;  under  parts  white,  sides  brownish. 

245 


246  BROWN  CREEPER. 

tomary  scolding  cack  /  his  song,  a  bubbling,  trickling 
tinkle  that  can  not  be  called  musical,  but  to  my  mind  is 
indescribably  attractive.  It  is  often  sung  in  the  air,  and 
in  marshes  where  Wrens  are  abundant  bird  after  bird 
may  be  seen  springing  a  few  feet  above  the  reeds,  sing- 
ing his  song,  and  then  dropping  back  again. 

CREEPERS.    (FAMILY  CERTHIID^E.) 

Of  the  twelve  known  members  of  this  family,  the 
Brown  Creeper  is  the  only  one  inhabiting  the  New 

.  World.     It  is  a  northern  bird,  breed- 

Brown  Creeper,       .  . 

Certhiafamiiiaris  ing  at  sea  level  only  irom  Maine  nortn- 
americana.  ward,  but  extending  southward  in  the 
Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina.  Sev- 
eral western  races  are  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  and  Sierra  Madres.  Our  eastern  bird  migrates 
southward  late  in  September,  and  from  that  date  until 
April  it  may  be  found  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida. 

The  Creeper,  like  a  Woodpecker,  never  climbs  head 
downward,  but,  using  his  stiff,  pointed  tail-feathers  (see 
Fig.  3  5)  as  a  prop,  winds  rapidly  up  the  trunks  of  trees 
in  his  apparently  never-ending  search  for  insects'  eggs 
and  larvge  hidden  in  crevices  in  the  bark.  If  the  Wrens 
are  the  most  active  birds,  the  Creeper  is  the  most  dili- 
gent. Except  when  it  was  stopping  to  secure  some  tid- 
bit, I  can  not  remember  seeing  a  Creeper  resting.  He 
usually  begins  at  the  base  of  a  tree  and  climbs  in  a  seri- 
ous, intent  way  for  a  certain  distance,  and  then,  without 
a  moment's  pause,  drops  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  next 
tree  and  continues  his  search. 

The  Creeper's  only  notes  while  with  us  are  a  thin, 
fine  squeak ;  but  Mr.  Brewster  tells  us  that  during  the 
nesting  season  he  has  an  exquisitely  tender  song  of  four 
notes. 


i 


CHICKADEE. 

Length,  5'25  inches.    Crown  and  throat  black  ;  cheeks  white  ;  back  gray ; 
belly  white,  washed  with  brownish. 

BROWN  CREEPER. 
Length,  5'65  inches.     Upper  parts  brown,  rusty,  and  white  ;   under  parts 

white. 

247 


248  CHICKADEE. 


TITMICE  AND  NUTHATCHES.     (FAMILY  PARID^E.) 

Comparing  the  Titmice  with  the  Nuthatches,  the 
former  may  be  described  as  short-billed  birds  with  long 
tails  who  do  not  creep,  the  latter  as  long-billed  birds 
with  short  tails  who  do  creep.  The  two  groups  are,  in 
fact,  quite  distinct,  and  by  some  systematists  are  placed 
in  separate  families. 

The  Titmice  number  some  seventy-five  species,  four 
of  which  are  found  in  eastern  North  America.  The 

Chickadee  commonest  and  most  generally  distrib- 

Parus  atricapiiius.  uted  is  the  Black-capped  Chickadee, 

Plate  LXX.  which  is  found  from  Labrador  to  Mary- 
land and  in  the  Alleghanies  southward  to  North  Carolina. 
Farther  south  it  is  replaced  by  the  closely  allied  Carolina 
Chickadee. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  range  the  Chickadee 
is  found  at  all  seasons,  but  it  is  less  common  in  the  middle 
and  southern  New  England  States  in  summer  than  in  win- 
ter, and  is  most  numerous  during  its  migration  in  October. 

It  is  with  winter  that  these  merry  little  black  and 
white  midgets  are  generally  associated.  Their  tameness, 
quaint  notes,  and  friendly  ways  make  them  unusually  com- 
panionable birds;  one  need  not  lack  for  society  when 
Chickadees  are  to  be  found.  Many  of  their  notes  are 
especially  conversational  in  character,  and  in  addition  to 
the  familiar  chickadee  call,  they  have  a  high,  sweet, 
plaintive  two-  or  three-noted  whistle. 

The  Chickadee  nests  about  the  middle  of  May,  select- 
ing some  suitable  cavity  or  making  one  for  himself  in  a 
decayed  trunk  or  limb  and  lining  it  with  moss,  plant- 
down,  and  feathers.  The  eggs,  five  to  eight  in  number, 
are  white,  spotted  and  speckled,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end, 
with  cinnamon  or  reddish  brown. 


PLATE  LXXI. 


RED-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 


Length,  4'60  inches.    Male,  crown  and  line  through  eye  black  ;  back  gray  ; 
under  parts  rusty.    Female,  similar,  but  black  replaced  by  gray. 

WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 

Length,  6'05  inches.    Male,  crown  black  ;  back  gray  ;  face  and  under  parts 
white.    Female,  similar,  but  crown  slaty. 


\ 
250  WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 

The  Tufted  Titmouse  is  a  more  southern  bird  than 
the  Chickadee  and  is  rarely  found  north  of  northern  New 

Jersey,    where,    however,    it    remains 
Tufted  Titmouse,      througllollt   the  year>      It  is  gix  inclies 
Parus  bicolor.  *  .  . 

in  length,  gray  above,  whitish  below, 
with  a  black  forehead,  reddish  brown  sides,  and  a  con- 
spicuous crest.  Its  usual  call  is  a  whistled  peto,  peto^ 
petOy  which  it  will  utter  for  hours  at  a  time.  It  has  also 
a  de-de-de-de  call,  suggesting  the  Chickadee's  well-known 
notes,  but  louder  and  more  nasal. 

With  no  especial  structure  other  than  slightly  enlarged 

toe  nails,  the  Nuthatches  still  differ  markedly  from  other 

White  breasted          birds  in  the  ease  with  which  they  run 

Nuthatch,  UP  °r  down  tree  trunks.     The   tail  is 

Sitta  caroiinensis.      short   and    square  and  is  not  used  in 

Plate  LXXI.         ciimbing.     The  bill  is  rather  slender, 

but  proves  an  effective  instrument  in  removing  insects' 

esfffs  and  larvae  from  crevices  in  the  bark  and  even  in 

oo 

excavating  a  nesting  hole  in  some  decayed  limb.  Several 
species  also  use  it  to  crack  or  "  hatch  "  nuts  after  they 
have  wedged  them  in  a  convenient  crevice. 

Of  the  three  species  of  Nuthatches  found  in  eastern 
North  America  the  White-breasted  is  the  most  common 
and  generally  distributed,  being  a  permanent  resident  from 
Florida  to  northern  New  England.  Like  many  resident 
birds,  it  nests  early,  the  five  to  eight  eggs  being  depos- 
ited about  April  20.  They  are  white,  thickly  and 
evenly  spotted  and  speckled  with  reddish  brown  and 
lavender. 

This  Nuthatch's  usual  call-note  is  a  loud  yank, 
yank,  while  its  song  is  a  singular,  tenor  hah-hah-hah- 
hah-hah. 

The  Ked -breasted  Nuthatch  is  a  more  northern  bird 
than  its  larger,  white-breasted  cousin.  At  sea  level  it 
nests  from  Maine  northward,  but  in  the  higher  parts  of 


GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET.  251 

the  Alleghanies  it  breeds  as  far  southward  as  North  Caro- 
lina.    It   comes   to  us  from  the  north  early  in  Septem- 

_  , ,       ,  ,  her,  and  in  the  winter  may  be  found  in 

Red-breasted  '  * 

Nuthatch,  varying  numbers  from  Massachusetts  to 

suta  canadensis.      the     Gulf    States.       Its    call -note     is 

Plate  LXXI.         higher,    thinner,    and    more     drawled 

than   the  vigorous  yank,   yank   of    the  White- breasted 

Nuthatch,  and  suggests  the  sound  produced  by  a  penny 

trumpet. 


KINGLETS,  GNATCATCHERS,  ETC.    (FAMILY  SYLVIID^E.) 

Of  the  three  subfamilies  included  in  this  family 
we  have  representatives  in  eastern  North  America  of 
only  two  —  the  two  Kinglets  of  the  subfamily  Regu- 
lince  and  the  Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher  of  the  subfamily 
Polioptilince.  The  Gnatcatcher  is  a  southern  bird,  oc- 
curring only  locally  or  as  a  straggler  north  of  Maryland. 
The  Kinglets  are  both  more  northern  in  their  distri- 
bution. 

The  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  nests  from  the  north- 
ern tier  of  States  northward  and  southward  along  the 
Golden-crowned  crests  of  the  Alleghanies  to  North  Car- 

Kinglet,  olina.  In  its  autumnal  migration  it 
satrapa.  reaches  the  vicinity  of  New  York  city 


Plate  LXXII.  ^^  geptem|)er  20,  and  during  the 
winter  may  be  found  in  varying  numbers  from  Maine  to 
Florida. 

The  Golden-crown  flits  about  the  terminal  twigs  in  its 
search  for  insect  food  and  reminds  one  somewhat  of  the 
smaller,  tree-inhabiting  "Warblers  in  habits.  Its  call  is  a 
fine  ti,  ti,  one  of  the  highest  and  least  noticeable  notes 
uttered  by  birds.  Its  song,  which  is  rarely  heard  except 
in  its  nesting  range,  is  described  by  Mr.  Brewster  as  begin- 
ning  with  a  succession  of  five  or  six  fine  shrill,  high-pitched, 


252  RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

somewhat  faltering  notes,  and  ending  with  a  short,  rapid, 
rather  explosive  warble. 

The  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet  is  a  more  northern  bird 
in  summer  and  a  more  southern  bird  in  winter  than  the 
Golden-crown,  rarely  being  found  at  the  latter  season  north 
of  South  Carolina.  Throughout  the  Middle  States  it  oc- 
Eub  crowned  curs  as  an  a^undant  spring  and  fall  mi- 

Kinglet,  grant,  passing  northward  from  April  10 
Reguius  calendula,  to  May  10  and  southward  between  Sep- 

Piate  Lxxn.  tember  20  and  October  20.  The  Ruby- 
crown  resembles  the  Golden -crown  in  habits,  but  is  more 
active.  Females  and  young  males  lack  the  ruby  crown- 
patch,  but  their  white  eye-ring,  impatient,  wrenlike  little 
note,  and  manner  of  nervously  twitching  their  wings  are 
characteristic. 

Taking  the  small  size  of  the  bird  into  consideration, 
the  Ruby-crown's  song  is  one  of  the  most  marvelous  vo- 
cal performances  among  birds.  As  Dr.  Coues  remarks, 
the  sound -producing  organ  is  not  larger  than  a  pinhead, 
and  the  muscles  that  move  it  are  almost  microscopic 
shreds  of  flesh ;  still,  the  bird's  song  is  not  only  surpass- 
ingly sweet,  varied,  and  sustained,  but  is  possessed  of  suf- 
ficient volume  to  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred 
yards.  Fortunately,  the  Ruby-crown  sings  both  on  its 
spring  and  fall  migrations. 


THRUSHES,  BLUEBIRDS,  ETC.    (FAMILY  TURDIDJE.) 

On  the  basis  of  certain  details  of  structure  Thrushes 
are  generally  assigned  highest  rank  in  the  class  Aves. 
Without  pausing  to  discuss  the  value  of  the  characters  on 
which  this  classification  is  made,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  from  an  aesthetic  standpoint  the  Thrushes  possess  in 
a  greater  degree  than  any  other  birds  those  qualifications 
which  make  the  ideal  bird.  There  are  many  birds  with 


I 


PLATE  LXXII. 

GOLDEN-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

Length,  4'05  inches.    Male,  crown  orange,  yellow,  and  black  ;   back  olive- 
green  ;  under  parts  whitish.    Female,  similar,  but  crown  without  orange. 

RUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

Length,  4'40   inches.     Adult  male,  crown-patch  ruby ;   back  olive-green ; 
under  parts  whitish.    Adult  female  and  young,  similar,  but  no  crown-patch. 

253 


254:  VEERY. 

brighter  plumage,  more  striking  voices,  and  more  inter- 
esting habits,  but  there  are  none  whose  bearing  is  more  dis- 
tinguished, whose  songs  are  more  spiritual.  The  brilliant 
Hummingbirds  and  Tanagers  excite  our  admiration,  but 
the  gentle,  retiring  Thrushes  appeal  to  our  higher  emo- 
tions ;  their  music  gives  voice  to  our  noblest  aspirations. 

Five  of  the  true  Thrushes  of  the  genus  Turdus  are 
found  in  eastern  North  America.  Three  of  them  may 
be  mentioned  here — the  Veery,  Wood  Thrush,  and  Her- 
mit Thrush — a  peerless  trio  of  songsters.  The  Yeery's 
mysterious  voice  vibrates  through  the  air  in  pulsating 
circles  of  song,  like  the  strains  of  an  ^Eolian  harp.  The 
Wood  Thrush's  notes  are  ringing  and  bell-like ;  he  sounds 
the  matin  and  vesper  chimes  of  day,  while  the  Hermit's 
hymn  echoes  through  the  woods  like  the  swelling  tones 
of  an  organ  in  some  vast  cathedral. 

But  it  is  impossible  to  so  describe  these  songs  that 
their  charm  will  be  understood.  Fortunately,  all  three 
birds  are  abundant,  and  a  brief  account  of  their  haunts 
and  habits  will  enable  any  one  to  find  them. 

The  Yeery,  or  Wilson's  Thrush,  winters  in  Central 
America,  and  nests  from  northern  Illinois  and  northern 
Veery  New  Jersey  northward  to  Manitoba  and 

Turdus  fuscescens.  Newfoundland  and  southward  along  the 
Plate  LXXIII.  Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina.  It  comes 
to  us  in  the  spring,  about  May  1,  and  remains  until  Sep- 
tember 15.  Near  the  middle  of  May  it  begins  to  build  its 
nest,  placing  it  on  or  near  the  ground.  Its  eggs  are 
greenish  blue,  and  resemble  in  color  those  of  the  Wood 
Thrush,  but  are  slightly  smaller. 

The  Yeery's  favorite  haunts  are  low,  damp  woods 
with  an  abundant  undergrowth.  It  is  a  more  retiring 
bird  than  the  Wood  Thrush,  and  is  rarely  seen  far  from 
tracts  of  woodland.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  our 
other  Thrushes  by  the  uniform  cinnamon  color  of  its 


PLATE  LXXIII. 

VEERY. 

Length,  ?'50  inches.    Upper  parts,  wings,  and  tail  uniform  light  cinnamon  ; 
breast  buffy,  light  marked  with  cinnamon  ;  belly  white  ;  sides  grayish. 

255 


256  WOOD  THRUSH. 

upper  parts,  faintly  spotted  breast,  and  particularly  by 
its  notes. 

The  Veery's  characteristic  calls  are  a  clearly  whistled 
whee-o  or  whee-you,  the  first  note  the  higher,  and  a  some- 
what softer  tbo-whee  or  teweu,  in  which  the  first  note  is 
the  lower.  Its  song  is  one  of  the  most  mysterious  and 
thrilling  sounds  to  be  heard  in  the  woods.  Elsewhere  I 
have  described  it  as  "a  weird,  ringing  monotone  of 
blended  alto  and  soprano  tones.  ...  It  has  neither 
break  nor  pause,  and  seems  to  emanate  from  no  one 
place.  If  you  can  imagine  the  syllables  vee-r-r-hu  [or 
vee-ry]  repeated  eight  or  nine  times  around  a  series  of 
intertwining  circles,  the  description  may  enable  you  to 
recognize  the  Veery's  song." 

The  Wood  Thrush  is  a  more  southern  bird  than  the 

Veery,  breeding  from  as  far  south  as  Florida,  north- 

Wood  Thrush        ward  to  southern  Vermont  and  Minne- 


musteiinus.  sota.  It  winters  in  Central  America 
Plate  LXXIV.  an(j  reacnes  11S  m  the  spring,  about  April 
30,  and  remains  until  October  1.  Its  nest  is  built  about 
the  middle  of  May,  and  is  generally  placed  in  a  sapling 
some  eight  feet  from  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  greenish 
blue. 

The  Wood  Thrush  is  not  such  a  recluse  as  the  Yeery. 
He  is,  it  is  true,  a  wood  lover,  and  shares  with  the  Yeery 
his  secluded  haunts,  but  he  seems  equally  at  home  in 
maples  and  elms  about  our  houses,  or  even  in  the  more 
quiet  village  streets.  He  is  therefore  more  often  heard 
than  his  mysterious  relative,  and,  as  a  voice,  is  familiar  to 
many  who  do  not  know  the  singer's  name. 

The  call-notes  of  the  Wood  Thrush  are  a  liquid  quirt 
and  sharp  pit-pit.  The  latter  is  an  alarm  note,  which, 
when  the  bird  fears  for  the  safety  of  its  young,  is  uttered 
with  much  increased  force  and  rapidity.  It  can  be  closely 
imitated  by  striking  two  large  pebbles  together. 


LXXIV. 

WOOD  THRUSH. 

Length,  8'30  inches.  Upper  parts  bright,  rusty  cinnamon,  brightest  on  back 
and  crown  ;  under  parts  white  everywhere,  except  center  of  belly,  with  large, 
rounded  black  spots. 

257 

18 


258  HERMIT  THRUSH. 

The  song  of  the  Wood  Thrush  is  wholly  unlike 
that  of  the  Veery.  It  opens  with  the  flutelike  notes, 
and  is  sung  disconnectedly,  being  broken 
by  pauses  and  by  low  notes,  audible  only 
Come  to  me,  when  one  is  near  the  singer. 

The  Hermit  Thrush  is  a  more  northern  bird  than 
either  the  Yeery  or  the  Wood  Thrush.  It  rarely  nests  at 
Hermit  Thrush  sea  ^eve^  south  of  Vermont  or  northern 
Turdus  aonalaechkas  Michigan,  but  in  the  higher  portions  of 
paiiasii.  Massachusetts  and  on  the  crests  of  the 

Catskills  and  Alleghanies  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, it  is  also  found  breeding.  It  winters  from  south- 
ern Illinois  and  New  Jersey  southward  to  the  Gulf,  it 
being  the  only  member  of  its  genus  to  inhabit  the  east- 
ern United  States  at  that  season.  Its  spring  migrations 
occur  between  April  5  and  May  10,  and  in  the  fall  we 
see  it  from  October  15  to  November  25,  while  occasion- 
ally it  may  winter. 

During  its  migrations  the  Hermit  Thrush  usually  fre- 
quents woodlands,  where  it  may  often  be  seen  on  or  near 
the  ground.  Like  the  Yeery,  it  is  a  ground-nester,  and 
its  eggs,  though  slightly  lighter  in  color,  resemble  those 
of  the  Yeery  and  Wood  Thrush  in  being  plain,  bluish 
green.  When  alighting,  the  Hermit  has  a  characteristic 
habit  of  gently  raising  and  lowering  its  tail,  and  at  the 
same  time  uttering  a  IOAV  chuck.  Sometimes  it  sings 
during  the  winter,  in  Florida,  and  also  while  migrating ; 
but  if  you  would  hear  this  inspired  songster  at  his  best, 
you  must  visit  him  in  his  summer  home.  The  Hermit's 
song  resembles  that  of  the  Wood  Thrush  in  form,  but 
it  is  more  tender  and  serene.  O  spheral,  spheral!  O 
holy,  holy !  Mr.  Burroughs  writes  the  its  opening  notes, 
and  there  is  something  about  the  words  which  seems  to 
express  the  spirit  of  heavenly  peace  with  which  the  bird's 
song  is  imbued. 


PLATE  LXXV. 

HERMIT  THRUSH. 

Length,  7'15  inches.  Upper  parts  and  wings  dark  cinnamon-brown  ;  tail 
bright  reddish  brown  ;  vinder  parts  white  ;  breast  spotted  with  black  ;  sides 
washed  with  brownish  ;  belly  white. 


2GO  ROBIN. 

It   seems   a  long  step    from    these    gentle,   refined 
Thrushes  to  their  comparatively  prosaic  cousin,  the  famil- 
iar  Robin.      But  the   Robin   has    his 
7  °  m'  place,  and  in  March  his  cheery  song  is 

MeruLa  migratona,.       *  i/  o 

quite  as  effective  as  the  Hermit's 
hymn  in  June. 

During  the  summer  Robins  are  distributed  through- 
out North  America  from  the  Gulf  States  and  southern 
end  of  the  Mexican  tableland,  northward  to  Labrador  and 
Alaska.  In  the  winter  they  may  be  found  in  numbers 
from  Virginia  southward,  small  flocks  and  single  birds 
being  occasionally  met  with  as  far  north  as  Massachu- 
setts. Robins  are  among  our  earliest  migrants,  appear- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  city  between  February 
20  and  March  1.  Nesting  is  begun  about  April  15,  the 
mud-lined  nest  and  greenish  blue  eggs  being  too  well 
known  to  require  description.  Two,  or  even  three  broods 
may  be  raised.  In  June,  the  young  of  the  first  brood 
with  some  adult  males  resort  each  night  to  a  chosen 
roost,  often  frequented  by  many  thousands  of  birds. 

The  fall  migration  begins  in  September,  but  the  birds 
are  with  us  in  roving  bands  until  December. 

About  the  time  that  we  first  hear  the  Robin's  ringing 

welcome  to  spring  we  may  listen  for  the  Bluebird's  more 

gentle    greeting.     Doubtless   the    bird 

Bluebird,  hag   been  with   llfl  a]]  wmter  for  Blue- 

Sialia  sialis.  ,  „ 

birds  winter  m  small  numbers  as  lar 
north  as  southern  Connecticut,  often  living  near  groves 
of  cedars,  which  offer  them  both  food  and  shelter.  In 
the  Southern  States  they  are  far  more  abundant  at  this 
season,  gathering  in  flocks  containing  hundreds  of  indi- 
viduals. 

The  Bluebird  is  the  first  of  our  smaller  birds  to  begin 
housekeeping,  and  early  in  April  it  may  be  seen  pro- 
specting about  the  site  of  last  year's  nest  in  a  bird  box  or 


BLUEBIRD.  261 

hollow  tree,  and  the  bluish  white  eggs  will  probably  be 
laid  before  the  middle  of  the  month. 

No  bird's  song  is  more  associated  with  the  return  of 
spring  than  the  Bluebird's ;  nor  is  there  a  bird's  note 
more  expressive  of  the  passing  season  than  the  Bluebird's 
autumn  call  of  far-away ',  far-away. 


INDEX. 


Acanthis  linaria,  194. 
Accipiter  cooperi,  122. 

velox,  122. 

Actitis  macularia,  103. 
J^gialitis  semipalmata,  108. 

vocifera,  108. 
Agelaius  phoeniceus,  1G6. 
Aggressive  coloration,  44. 
Aigrette  plumes,  38. 
Alaudidse,  158. 
Albatross,  18, 19. 
Alcedinidse,  134. 
Ampelidae,  216. 
Ampelis  ceclrorum,  216. 
Anatidae,  92. 
Androdon,  32. 
Anhingas,  32. 
Anseres,  92. 

Antrostomus  vociferus,  146. 
Archseopteryx,  3,  4,  18. 
Ardea  herodias,  95. 

virescens,  96. 
Ardeidse,  94. 
Asio  accipitrinus,  126. 

wilsonianus,  128. 
Auk,  Great,  20. 

Razor-billed,  20. 
Auks,  20,  21,  28,  30. 
Avocet,  32,  33. 
Avocettula,  31. 

Bill,  the,  as  a  hand,  30. 

as  a  musical  instrument,  30. 
as  a  weapon,  31. 
sexual  adornment  of,  30. 
uses  of,  30. 


Birds,  altricial,  69. 

ancestors  of,  2. 

beauty  of,  9. 

bill  of,  30. 

biography  of,  73. 

characters  of,  2. 

colors  of,  35. 

distribution  of,  4. 

economic  value  of,  5. 

eggs  of,  68. 

evolution  of,  14. 

feet  of,  27. 

field  key  to,  75. 

flightless,  19. 

grace  of,  10. 

how  to  identify,  71. 

mating  of,  65. 

mental  development  of,  10. 

migration  of,  48. 

musical  powers  of,  10. 

nests  of,  65. 

number  of  species  of,  1. 

place  in  Nature  of,  1. 

pracocial,  69. 

relation  to  man  of,  5. 

scientific  value  of,  5. 

songs  of,  11,  62. 

tail  of,  25. 

topography  of,  74. 

voice  of,  62. 

wings  of,  17. 

young  of,  70. 
Bittern,  American,  98. 
Blackbird,  Crow,  168. 

Red  winged,  166. 
Blackbirds,  55,  163. 

263 


264 


INDEX. 


Bluebird,  49,  260. 

Bobolink,  16,  36,  37,  38,  54,  55,  60,  63, 

170. 

Bob-white,  36, 110. 
Bonasa  umbellus,  111. 
Botaurus  lentiginosus,  98. 
Bubonidae,  124. 
Bull-bat,  144. 
Bunting,  Bay- winged,  182. 

Black-throated,  210. 

Indigo,  63,  206. 

Snow,  196. 
Butcher-bird,  218. 
Buteo  borealis,  120. 

lineatus,  116. 
Butter-bird,  172. 
Buzzard,  Turkey,  115. 
Buzzards,  8. 

Call-notes,  significance  of,  63. 

Canaries,  39. 

Caprimulgidae,  142. 

Cardinal,  207. 

Cardinalis  cardinalis,  207. 

Carpodacus  purpureus,  200. 

Cassique,  23. 

Cassowary,  19. 

Catbird,  69,  237. 

Cathartes  aura,  115. 

Cathartidae,  115. 

Certhia  familiaris  americana,  246. 

Certhiidre,  246. 

Ceryle  alcyon,  136. 

Chaetura  pelagica,  146. 

Chambergo,  172. 

Charadriidae,  106. 

Chat,  Yellow-breasted,  236. 

Chebec,  156. 

Chelidon  erythrogaster,  214. 

Chewink,  204. 

Chickadee,  7,  8,  70,  24S. 

Carolina,  248. 
Chippy,  186. 

Red-capped,  194. 

Winter,  194. 

Chondestes  grammacus,  208. 
Chordeiles  virginianus,  144. 
Circus  hudsonius,  120. 


Cistothorus  palustris,  244. 
Clamatores,  150. 
Clape,  140. 
Clivicola  riparia,  214. 
Coccyges,  132. 
Coccyzus  americanus,  132. 

erythrophthalmus,  134. 
Colaptes  auratus,  140. 
Cohnus  virginianus,  110. 
Colors  of  birds,  35. 
Color  and  age,  36. 

and  climate,  39. 

and  food,  39. 

and  haunt  and  habit,  41. 

and  sex,  45. 
Columbae,  112. 
Columbida?,  112. 
Contopus  virens,  158. 
Coot,  27,  28, 100. 
Cormorants,  69. 
Corvidae,  161. 
Corvus  americanus,  161. 
Cowbird,  176. 

Creeper,  Brown,  16,  25,  246. 
Creepers,  6,  15, 16,  246. 
Crossbill,  American,  196. 
Crow,  American,  161. 
Crow-duck,  100. 
Cuckoo,  Black-billed,  134. 

Yellow-billed.  7, 132. 
Cueulidae,  132. 
Cyanocitta  cristata,  163. 

Deceptive  coloration,  44. 
Dendrocolaptidae,  32. 
Dendroica  aestiva,  228. 

coronata,  228. 

virens,  228. 
Dickcissel,  210. 
Directive  colors,  44. 
Diving  Birds,  84. 
Docimastes,  31. 
Dolichonyx  oryzivorus,  170. 
Dove,  Carolina,  112. 

Mourning,  112. 
Dryobates  pubescens,  138. 

villosus,  138. 
Duck,  Black,  92. 


INDEX. 


265 


Duck,  Broadbill,  94. 

Bufflehead,  94. 

Canvas  back,  94. 

Eider,  94. 

Old  Squaw,  94. 

Redhead,  94. 

Ruddy,  94. 

Scaup,  94. 

Wood,  92. 
Ducks,  20,  21,  22,  23,  28,  30,  36,  67. 

Eagle,  Bald,  124. 
Eggs  of  birds,  68. 
Egret,  White,  95. 
Empidonax  minimus,  156. 
Emu,  19,  69,  70. 
Ereunetes  pusillus,  106. 
Eutoxeres,  31. 

Falco  sparverius,  120. 

Falconidoe,  116. 

Feet,  the,  as  hands,  29. 

as  weapons,  29. 

effects  of  use  and  disuse  of,  27. 

seasonal  change  in  structure  of,  29. 

uses  of,  27. 
Field-glass.  72. 
Finch,  Grass,  182. 

Lark,  208. 

Purple,  39,  200. 
Finches,  42, 178. 
Firebird,  164. 
Fish  Hawk,  66. 
Flamingo,  28,  39. 
Flicker,  68,  140. 
Flycatcher,  Arizona  Crested,  154. 

Crested,  68,  152. 

Great  Crested,  152. 

Least,  156. 

Flycatchers,  6,  27,  44, 149. 
Frigate  Birds,  5, 19. 
Fringillidae,  178. 
Fulica  americana,  100. 

Galeoscoptes  carolinensis,  237. 
Gallinse,  110. 
Gallinago  delicata,  104. 
Gallinules,  17,  20,  22. 


Gannets,  32. 
Geothlypis  trichas,  234. 
Glacial  period,  59. 
Gnatcatcher,  Blue-gray,  251. 
Goldfinch,  198. 
Goose,  Canada,  94. 
Grackle,  Bronzed,  168. 

Purple,  168. 
Grebe,  Pied-billed,  84. 
Grebes,  18,  20,  21,  22,  25,  27. 
Grosbeak,  Cardinal,  36. 

Pine,  198. 

Rose-breasted,  36,  202. 
Grouse,  Ruft'ed,  29,  111. 
Grouse,  18,  19,  23,  27,  29,  36,  41,  6 
Gull,  Herring,  88. 
Gulls,  9,  67. 

Haliseetus  leucocephalus,  124. 
Hangnest,  164. 
Harporhynchus  rufus,  240. 
Hawk,  Chicken,  116,  118. 

Cooper's,  8.  116,  122. 

Fish,  14,  29,  123. 

Hen,  116. 

Marsh,  64, 120. 

Red-shouldered,  116. 

Red-tailed,  120. 

Sharp-shinned,  8,  116, 122. 

Sparrow,  120. 

Hawks,  7,  8,  29,  36,  44,  55,  65. 
Hell-diver,  84. 
Herodiones,  94. 
Heron,  Black-crowned  Night,  96. 

Great  Blue,  95. 

Little  Green,  96. 

Snowy,  95. 
Herons,  28. 

High-hole,  68,  70,  140. 
Hirundinidse,  211. 
Hoatzin,  17. 
Huia-bird,  33. 
Hummingbird.  Avocet,  31. 

Ruby-throated,  148, 

Sickle-billed,  31. 

Siphon-billed,  31. 

Small-billed,  31. 

Tooth-billed,  32. 


266 


INDEX. 


Hummingbirds,  5,  6, 14,  18,  23,  25.  31, 
42,  67,  69,  70, 148. 

Ibis,  Scarlet,  39. 
Icteria  virens,  236. 
Icteridae,  163. 
Icterus  galbula,  164. 
spurius,  166. 

Jacana,  24,  28. 
Jay,  Blue,  162. 
Junco,  192. 
Junco  hyemalis,  192. 
J  uncos,  41,  44. 

Key  to  common  birds,  75. 
Killdeer,  108. 
Kingbird,  150. 
Kingfisher,  Belted,  136. 
Kinglet,  Golden-crowned,  251. 
Ruby-crowned,  252. 

Laniidae,  218. 
Lanius  borealis,  218. 
Lark,  Horned,  41,  55, 158. 

Prairie  Horned,  160. 
Laridte,  88. 

Larus  argentatus  smithsonianus,  88. 
Lighthouses,  56,  57. 
Limicoloe,  32, 102. 
Longipennes,  88. 
Loon,  86. 
Loxia  curvirostra  minor,  196. 

Macrochires,  142. 
Mallard,  92. 
Man-o'-war  Bird,  19. 
Marsh  Hen,  100. 
Martin,  Purple,  212,  216. 
Mating  of  birds,  65. 
Meadovvlark,  27,  44, 174. 
Megascops  asio,  128. 
Melanerpes  erythrocephalus,  140. 
Melospiza  fasciata,  178. 

georgiana,  180. 
Mergansers,  32,  92. 
Merula  migratoria,  260. 
Micropodidse,  146. 


Microrhynchus,  31. 
Migration  of  birds,  48. 

cause  of,  59. 

effects  of  changes  of  climate  on,  59. 

extent  of,  49. 

highways,  55,  60. 

manner  of,  54. 

nocturnal,  55,  56,  57. 

origin  of,  58. 

times  of,  49. 
Mimus  polyglottos,  238. 
Mniotilta  varia,  226. 
Mniotiltidfe,  224. 
Mockingbird,  238. 
Molothrus  ater,  176. 
Molt,  the,  37. 
Momotus  subrufescens,  25 
Motmot,  25. 
Mud-hen,  100. 
Myiarchus  crinitus,  152. 

Natural  selection,  14,  15,  65. 

Nesting  season,  64. 

Nest  of  birds,  65. 

Nighthawk,  6,  23, 144. 

Notornis,  22. 

Nuthatch,  Red-breasted,  250. 

White-breasted,  251. 
Nuthatches,  6,  8. 
Nycticorax  nycticorax  nsevius,  96. 

Octoris  alpestris,  158. 
Opera-glass,  72. 
Opisthocomus  cristatus,  17. 
Oriole,  Baltimore,  164. 

Orchard,  37, 164, 165. 
Orioles,  42,  44,  55,  163. 
Ortolan,  172. 
Oscines,  150. 
Osprey,  American,  122. 
Ostinops,  23. 

Ostrich,  5, 18, 19,  27,  29,  69,  70. 
Otocoris  alpestris,  158. 
Oven-bird,  231,  232. 
Owl,  Barn,  8. 

Barred,  130. 

Great  Horned,  128. 

Long-eared,  126. 


INDEX. 


267 


Owl,  Screech,  41, 128. 

Short-eared,  126. 

Snowy,  44. 

Owls,  7,  8,  30,  65, 124. 
Ox-eye,  106. 

Paludicolse,  98. 

Pandion  haliaetus  carolinensis,  122. 

ParidaB,  248. 

Parrots,  5,  20,  29,  31,  39,  40. 

Partridge,  19,  67,  110,  111. 

Parus  atricapillus,  248. 

bicolor,  250. 
Passer  dornesticus,  184. 
Passerella  iliaca,  190. 
Passeres,  149. 
Passerina  cyanea,  206. 
Peabody-bird,  188. 
Peacock,  27. 
Penguins,  5,  18,  21. 
Peeps,  106. 

Permanent  residents,  defined,  53. 
Petrel,  Leach's,  91. 

Wilson's,  91. 

Petrochelidon  lunifrons,  214. 
Pewee,  Wood,  63,  158. 
Phalarope,  27,  28,  70. 
Pheasant,  111. 
Philohela  minor,  102. 
Phoebe,  151. 
Pici,  136. 
Picidfe,  136. 
Pigeon,  Carrier,  61. 

Wild,  112. 
Pigeons,  20. 

Pinicola  enucleator,  198. 
Pintail,  92. 

Pipilo  erythrophthalmus,  204. 
Piquebois  jaune,  140. 
Piranga  erythromelas,  211. 
Plectrophenax  nivalis,  196. 
Plover,  Black-breasted,  108. 

Golden,  108. 

Killdeer,  108. 

Piping,  108. 

Wilson's,  108. 

Ring-necked,  108. 

Semipalmated,  108. 


Plovers,  41,  49,  106. 
Podilymbus  podiceps,  84. 
Podicipidae,  84. 
Poocaetes  gramineus,  184. 
Porzana  Carolina,  100. 
Procellariidse,  91. 
Progne  subis,  216. 
Protective  coloration,  42. 

colors,  41. 
Ptarmigans,  44. 
Pygopodes,  84. 

Quail,  110. 

Quails,  18,  19,  27,41,  67. 

Quiscalus  quiscula,  168. 

Kail,  Clapper,  100. 

King,  100. 

Little  Black,  100. 

Yellow,  100. 

Virginia,  100. 
Rails,  18,  20,  22,  27,  98. 
Rallidse,  98. 
Rallus  crepitans,  100. 
Raptores,  115. 
Recognition  colors,  44 
Redpoll,  194. 
Redstart,  229,  230. 
Reedbird,  170. 
Regulus  calendula,  252. 

satrapa,  251. 
Rhea,  19. 
Ricebird,  172. 
Robin,  7, 12,  36,  49,  55,  63,  260. 

Golden,  164. 

Salmon,  58. 

Sandpiper,  Semipalmated,  106. 

Spoonbill,  33. 

Spotted,  69,  103. 
Sauropsida,  1. 
Sayornis  phoebe,  154. 
Scolopacida?,  102. 
Scoters,  94. 
Seals,  58. 

Setophaga  futicilla,  230. 
Seiurus  aurocapillus,  232. 
Sexual  characters,  secondary,  45. 


268 


INDEX. 


Sexual  selection,  46. 

Shelklrakes,  92. 

Shrike,  Loggerhead,  218,  219. 

Northern,  218. 
Sialia  sialis,  260. 
Signaling  colors,  44. 
Sitta  canadensis,  251. 

carolinensis,  250. 
Snipe,  Wilson's,  104. 
Snipes,  28,  36,  41,  43,  49,  07. 
Snowbird,  Slate-colored,  192. 

White,  196. 
Snowflake,  38,  196. 
Songs  of  birds,  62. 
Sora,  100. 
Sparrow,  Chipping,  186. 

English,  184. 

Field,  182. 

Fox,  190. 

House,  174, 184. 

Song,  40,  178. 

Swamp,  180. 

Tree,  193, 194. 

Vesper,  183,  184. 

White-crowned,  190. 

White-throated,  188. 
Sparrows,  6,  18,  41,  43,  49,  67, 178. 
Spinus  tristis,  198. 
Spiza  americana,  210. 
Spizella  pusilla,  182. 

monticola,  194. 

socialis,  186. 
Spoonbill,  Roseate,  33. 
Squawk,  96. 
Stake  Driver,  98. 
Sterna  hirundo,  90. 
Sturnella  magna,  174. 
Summer  residents,  defined,  53. 
Sylviidse,  251. 
Syrnum  nebulosum,  130. 
Swallow,  Bank,  212,  214. 

Barn,  212,  213,  214. 

Cliff,  212,  213,  214. 

Eave,  214. 

Rough -winged,  215. 

Tree,  212,  213,  215. 
Swallows,  6,  27,  55,  211. 
Swan,  Trumpeter,  94. 


Swan,  Whistling,  94. 
Swift,  Chimney,  146. 
Swifts,  6,  15,  27,  55,  142. 

Tachycineta  bicolor,  215. 
Tail,  the,  expression  of  emotion  with, 
26. 

relation  between  form  of,  and  flight, 
25. 

sexual  characters  in,  25. 

uses  of,  25. 

Tanager,  Scarlet,  36,  37,  211. 
Tanagers,  42,  44,  210. 
Tanagridae,  210. 
Teal,  Blue-winged,  92. 

Green-winged,  92. 
Telescope,  56,  57. 
Tern,  Common,  90. 
Tetraonidse,  110. 
Thrasher,  Brown.  240. 
Thrush,  Brown,  240. 

Hermit,  258. 

Wilson's,  254. 

Wood,  12,  256. 
Thrushes,  6,  55,  67,  252. 
Thryothorus  ludovicianus,  244. 
Titmouse,  Tufted,  250. 
Towhee,  44,  204. 
Transient  visitants,  defined,  54. 
Trochilidae,  146. 
Trochilus  colubris,  148. 
Troglodytes  ae'don,  240. 

hiemalis,  242. 
Troglodytidae,  237. 
Tubinares,  91. 
Turdidse,  252. 
Turdus  aonolaschkse  pallasii,  258. 

fuscescens,  254. 

mustelinus,  256. 
Turkey,  27. 
Tyrannidae,  149. 
Tyrannus  tyrannus,  150. 

Urinator  imber,  86. 
Urinatoridae,  86. 

Veery,  63,  254. 
Vireo  flavifrons,  222. 


INDEX. 


269 


Vireo  gilvus,  222. 

noveboracensis,  222. 

olivaceus,  221. 
Vireo,  Red-eyed,  221. 

Warbling,  222. 

White-eyed,  222. 

Yellow-throated,  222. 
Vireos,  6,  55,  220. 
Vireonidae,  220. 
Vulture,  Blaek,  115. 

Turkey,  115. 
Vultures,  8. 

Warbler,  Black  and  White,  225,  226. 

Black -throated  Green,  227,  228. 

Myrtle,  227,  228. 

Yellow,  228. 
Warblers,  6,  42,  55,  224. 
Water  Witch,  85. 
Waxwing,  Cedar,  210. 
Whip-poor-will,  6,  146. 
Widgeon,  92. 

Wing,  the,  as  a  musical  instrument, 
23. 

as  a  weapon,  24. 

effects  of  use  and  disuse  of,  18,  20. 

expression  of  emotion  with,  24. 

molt  of  feathers  of,  21. 


Wing,  sexual  characters  in,  23. 

uses  of,  17. 

Winter  residents,  defined,  53. 
Woodcock,  23,  32,  43,  102. 
Woodhewers,  15,  25,  32. 
Woodpecker,  Downy,  16,  137,  138. 

Hairy,  138. 

Pileated,  14. 

Red-headed,  140. 
Woodpeckers,  5,  6,  8,  14,  15,  16,  25, 

64,  67,  69,  136. 
Wren,  Carolina,  244. 

House,  240. 

Long-billed  Marsh,  244. 

Winter,  242. 
Wrens,  55,  237. 
Wry  bill,  33. 

Yellowbird.  1 98. 

Yellow-hammer,  140. 

Yellow- throat,  Maryland,  233,  234. 

Young  birds,  70. 

Yucker,  140. 

Zamelodia  ludoviciana,  202. 
Zenaidura  macroura,  112. 
Zonotrichia  albicollis,  188. 
Zonotrichia  leucophrys.  189. 


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esting fashion  the  habits  and  environment  of  our  familiar  fresh- 
water game  fish,  including  anadromous  fish  like  the  salmon  and 
sea  trout.  The  life  of  a  fish  is  traced  in  a  manner  very  interest- 
ing to  Nature  lovers,  while  the  simple  and  useful  explanations  of 
the  methods  of  angling  for  different  fish  will  be  appreciated  by 
fishermen  old  and  young.  As  one  of  the  most  experienced  of 
American  .fishermen,  Mr.  McCarthy  is  able  to  speak  with  au- 
thority regarding  salmon,  trout,  ouananiche,  bass,  pike,  and  pick- 
erel, and  other  fish  which  are  the  object  of  the  angler's  pursuit. 
His  clear  and  practical  counsel  as  to  fly-casting,  and  rods  and 
tackle  and  their  use,  and  his  advice  as  to  outfits  and  the  various 
details  of  camp  life,  render  his  book  a  most  useful  companion  for 
all  sportsmen  and  campers.  Dr.  David  Starr  Jordan  has  read 
the  manuscript,  and  has  lent  the  weight  of  his  approval  by  writ- 
ing an  introduction.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  with  pic- 
tures and  serviceable  diagrams. 

D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY,  NEW  YORK. 


